{"id":5906,"date":"2018-07-24T06:30:05","date_gmt":"2018-07-24T11:30:05","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/?p=5906"},"modified":"2018-07-11T14:09:51","modified_gmt":"2018-07-11T19:09:51","slug":"assessment-of-motivations-of-masters-athletes-at-the-world-masters-games","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/assessment-of-motivations-of-masters-athletes-at-the-world-masters-games\/","title":{"rendered":"Assessment of motivations of masters athletes at the World Masters Games"},"content":{"rendered":"

Authors:<\/strong> Joe Walsh, Ian Timothy Heazlewood, Mark DeBeliso, Mike Climstein<\/p>\n

Corresponding Author:<\/strong>
\nJoe Walsh
\nSchool of Psychological and Clinical Sciences
\nFaculty of Engineering, Health, Science and the Environment
\nCharles Darwin University
\nDarwin, NT, 0909
\nAustralia
\njo.walsh@cdu.edu.au
\n+618 8946 7215<\/p>\n

Joe Walsh is affiliated with The School of Psychological and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, Health, Science and the Environment, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia.
\nIan Timothy Heazlewood is Associate Professor and Theme Leader Exercise and Sport Science in The School of Psychological and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, Health, Science and the Environment, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia.<\/p>\n

Mark DeBeliso is Professor, Department of Physical Education and Human Performance, Southern Utah University, Cedar City, USA<\/p>\n

Dr. Mike Climstein (FASMF, FACSM, FAAESS, AEP) is with Clinical Exercise Physiology, Southern Cross University, School of Health and Human Sciences, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia; Adjunct Associate Professor with The University of Sydney, Exercise, Health and Performance Faculty Research Group, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, and Adjunct Associate Professor and Co-Director of the Water Based Research Unit, Bond University, Robina, Queensland, Australia.<\/p>\n

Assessment of motivations of masters athletes at the World Masters Games<\/h3>\n

ABSTRACT<\/strong>
\nThe Motivations of Marathoners Scales (MOMS) is a quantitative instrument for assessing motivation of marathon participants. A large sample of masters athletes completed the MOMS as part of a questionnaire at the World Masters Games (WMG), the world\u2019s largest multisport event. The aim of this research project was to document statistical patterns within this sample for the psychological variables in the MOMS. As the MOMS had been used for 25 years, this large sample represented a good opportunity to document patterns in the application of the MOMS psychometric tool and recommendations for those interested in promoting masters sports, based upon the participant motivations to compete. Statistically significant patterns were identified in the motivations of the 3,928 participants (2,010 male, 1,918 female) who completed the 56 question MOMS survey. As well as gender-based differences in motivations, 37 of the 56 questions were identified as being more or less important motivators by the participants. The most motivation for the cohort as a whole was given by the item construct \u201cto socialize with other participants\u201d, though there were also significant differences between the two genders. The weight control questions indicated these masters athletes did not place a priority on this construct, thus focusing marketing initiatives on constructs such as weight control may be ineffective. For promotion of participation in masters sport and by inference physical activity at older ages, marketing initiatives would focus on such constructs as to compete with others, to improving sporting performance, socialization, health improvement, improving physical fitness, feeling a sense of achievement, pushing oneself beyond current limits and staying in physical condition, all of which were more highly rated by participants than weight control.
\n<\/p>\n

Keywords:<\/strong> motivations of marathoners scales, sport participation, masters athlete, veteran athlete<\/p>\n

INTRODUCTION<\/strong>
\nThe Motivations of Marathoners Scales (MOMS) (37) is a valid and reliable, quantitative instrument for assessing motivation of marathon participants. Participant motivation evaluates those factors that enhance or inhibit motivation to participate and are represented by factors such as health orientation, weight concern\/weight loss and personal goal achievement (36, 37). The MOMS is a psychometric instrument based upon a series of 56 questions and scored on a seven-point Likert scale (35). The MOMS instrument was constructed around nine re-occurring themes that had been reported in the preceding literature by marathon runners as reasons for participating in marathons (37). These themes were general health orientation, weight concern, affiliation, recognition, personal goal achievement, competition, coping, self-esteem and life meaning. The themes can in turn be clustered into four areas, namely: physical health, social, achievement, and psychological (37). Using a pool of different questions for each theme, Masters and colleagues (37) statistically tested these constructs and selected the most appropriate. The MOMS scale has been adopted to investigate athletes competing in other sports (other than marathon), including at both multi-sport events (22, 23) and individual sports tournaments such as rugby (31). Data collected using the MOMS scale has also been used as a convenience sample for demonstrating applications of data mining techniques that can be used in exercise science and exercise psychology (30).<\/p>\n

This manuscript focuses on application of the MOMS psychometric tool to masters athletes. As defined by Raeburn and Dascombe (42), masters athletes are those systematically training for and competing in organized sporting events designed specifically for older adults. The biggest masters sporting event (by participant number) is the World Masters Games (WMG). Governed by the International Masters Games Association, the WMG are a non-invitational, quadrennial, international, multi-sport event. In terms of competitor numbers, the WMG has developed into the world\u2019s largest international sports tournament.<\/p>\n

Although the WMG have been in existence since 1985, surprisingly there was limited scientific literature available on this specific cohort. An international team of researchers was thus formed to investigate the nexus between aging, physical activity, indices of health and the global obesity epidemic by investigating those competing in masters sport.<\/p>\n

The benefits of participation in masters athletic competition had been previously investigated with Seals (47) and others reporting positive adaptations in musculoskeletal health (15, 19, 69), improved glycaemia (41, 43) and considerable health benefits associated with the long-term exercise participation (16, 20, 34, 44, 49). Although long-term participation in sport (and physical activity (39)) is advocated by health professionals, the advanced age of participants is also commonly associated with an increased incidence of chronic diseases such as coronary artery disease (5, 50), hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and type 2 diabetes mellitus (69). Research on the masters athletes competing at the Sydney WMG has included research on body mass index (53, 54, 60, 62, 63), injury incidence (9, 29, 55, 64) and health (6, 7, 10-13, 56-58) of competitors.<\/p>\n

The questions identified in the MOMS have been demonstrated (4, 18, 40, 45) as important motivational constructs and have been used by sport psychology researchers for 25 years. A number of studies have been conducted on the MOMS in the context of masters athletes (1-3, 21-24, 26-28, 48, 59). Researchers have investigated prediction of gender from the sports psychological data in the MOMS (25, 66, 67). Being able to predict gender or other attributes of participants from MOMS data has value of its own based solely on the additional information produced. Additionally, further research on relationships between gender classification prediction and this scale may lead to supplementary insights that might assist in other research using the MOMS instrument. Heazlewood and colleagues (32) re-evaluated the first and second order factor structure of the MOMS instrument with masters athletes, the factor structure identified in the original MOMS instrument was not reproduced with the WMG male and female cohorts.<\/p>\n

A large sample of masters athletes completed the MOMS as part of a questionnaire at a large multisport event. The manuscript will include measures of central tendency and dispersion for Likert responses for all respondents and also with responses split by gender. The manuscript will also include comparison between genders for each of the 56 questions. The purpose of this research project was to document descriptive statistics and significant statistical patterns within this data for the psychological variables in the MOMS. As the MOMS had been used for many years, this large sample represented a good opportunity to document patterns in the application of the MOMS psychometric tool and recommendations for those interested in promoting masters sports, based on the participant motivations to compete. It was hypothesised that there would be significant differences between the two genders. These differences were assumed based on the success achieved in past research (25, 66, 67) predicting participant gender from MOMS data.<\/p>\n

METHODOLOGY<\/strong>
\nApproval for this study was granted by a university research ethics committee in accordance with the ethical standards of the Helsinki Declaration of 1975 (revised in 2008). The 2009 Sydney World Masters Games Organising Committee approved the project, stipulating the survey must only be provided in an online format so there was minimal disruption to the participants during the WMG. An online survey was created using Limesurveytm, an open-source, web-based application to deliver the survey. Filters were used in the participant questionnaires to abbreviate response times. Following pilot testing by investigators, electronic invitations were sent to masters games athletes who provided a valid email address upon registration. The survey consisted of several sections. These sections featured questions related to the following areas: information for participants, a privacy statement, participant demographics, participant medical history (personal and family), past surgical procedures, prescribed medications, physiologic data and psychological participation factors.<\/p>\n

The MOMS (37) was used to gauge the importance of a range of psychological factors in determining sports participation. The age ranges in the research used to develop the MOMS survey instrument (37) had significant overlap with age ranges of participants at the WMG (7, 12, 13, 52). The MOMS scale featured 56 questions clustered within nine scales, which in turn were clustered in four areas. To complete the MOMS participants rated each of the items according to the scale in terms of how important it was as a reason for their participation in sport. A score of 1 would indicate that the item is “not a reason” for participation, whereas a score of 7 indicates that the item is a “very important reason” for participation and scores in-between these extremes represented relative degrees of each reason. The following are sample questions which sought responses to word stems such as; \u201cto control my weight\u201d, \u201cto compete with others\u201d, \u201cto earn respect of peers\u201d, \u201cto improve my sporting performance\u201d, \u201cto earn respect of people in general\u201d, \u201cto socialize with other participants\u201d, \u201cto improve my health\u201d, \u201cto compete with myself\u201d, \u201cto become less anxious\u201d, \u201cto improve my self-esteem\u201d, \u201cto have something in common with other people\u201d, \u201cto add a sense of meaning to my life\u201d, \u201cto prolong my life\u201d and \u201cto become less depressed.\u201d The full list of 56 words stems used are included in the results section. Analysis of this psychometric data was completed using the programming language R, version 3.5.0 (2018-04-23) “Joy in Playing” on platform x86_64-apple-darwin13.4.0 (64-bit) running under OS X El Capitan 10.11.3.<\/p>\n

Heazlewood et al. (28) had conducted analysis of mean and standard deviations for participant motivation factor scores by gender summarising trends by adopting the underlying factors in the MOMS as applied to the WMG. These were calculated to assess trends as well as cross tabulations of BMI categories with gender. Due to the evidence of superior predictive scores utilising the 56 questions in the MOMS, as opposed to collapsing into underlying factors (67), the analysis in this manuscript was conducted using the raw 56 item constructs in the survey tool, as opposed to condensing them into the underlying factors (as per the MOMS structure). As well as reporting descriptive statistics in the form of measures of central tendency and dispersion, statistical analysis was conducted to investigate the differences in scoring the 56 items between the two genders. Comparison was made between genders using Welch two sample t-tests for each of the 56 questions. The Welch t-test was considered preferable over Student\u2019s t-test due to no dependence on equal variances between independent groups (38, 46). To consider a difference between the genders to be statistical significant, the required level of significance \u03b1, was set a priori at p=0.05. <\/p>\n

RESULTS<\/strong>
\nThe 2009 Sydney World Masters Games featured 28,089 competitors representing 95 countries and competing in 28 sports (52). In fact, the largest ever attendance at a WMG event was in Sydney, making this the largest international sports tournament (in terms of participant numbers) in the modern era. A total of 3,928 masters athletes (14.0% of competitors) completed all questions utilized in the analysis in this manuscript. Participation at the Sydney WMG was open to sports people of all abilities and most ages, the minimum age criterion ranged between 25 and 35 years depending upon the sport.
\nTable 1 illustrates the mean and standard deviation of scores for each of the 56 questions in the MOMS for the WMG masters athletes. The word stem for each MOMS question is included. The mean scores are reported in the last two columns for both male and female masters athletes.<\/p>\n

Table 1: Measures of central tendency and dispersion for Likert responses for all respondents and also with responses split by gender. Data is summarised to 3 decimal places.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

Item Constructs<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Both Genders Combined<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male
\n Mean<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female
\n Mean<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Mean<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Standard Deviation<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To control my weight <\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.593<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.070<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.472<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.721<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To compete with others<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.207<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.696<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.355<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.051<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To earn respect of peers<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.073<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.862<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.237<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.901<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To reduce my weight<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.013<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.980<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.959<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.070<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To improve my sporting performance<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.203<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.716<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.185<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.223<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To earn respect of people in general<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.866<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.780<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.975<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.752<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To socialize with other participants<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.713<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.498<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.476<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.960<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To improve my health<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.554<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.662<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.485<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.627<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To compete with myself<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.789<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.000<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.987<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.583<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To become less anxious<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.461<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.770<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.454<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.468<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To improve my self-esteem<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.075<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.984<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.062<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.089<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To have something in common with other people<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.737<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.992<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.630<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.848<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To add a sense of meaning to my life<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.692<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.036<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.579<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.812<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To prolong my life<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.345<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.101<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.394<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.295<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To become less depressed<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.399<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.863<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.371<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.429<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To meet people<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.727<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.879<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.456<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.011<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To become more physically fit<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.669<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.542<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.548<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.795<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To distract myself from daily worries<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.294<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.986<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.257<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.333<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To make my family and friends proud of me<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.973<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.814<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.951<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.996<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To make my life more purposeful<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.310<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.951<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.231<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.393<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To look leaner<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.408<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.981<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.319<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.502<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To try to perform better<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.076<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.723<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.144<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.005<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To feel more confident about myself<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.677<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.008<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.580<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.780<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To participate with my family or friends<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.858<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.008<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.563<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.168<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To make myself feel whole<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.020<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.980<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.991<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.052<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To reduce my chance of having a heart attack<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.527<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.053<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.649<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.400<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To make myself more complete<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.349<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.981<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.358<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.340<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To improve my mood<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.388<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.982<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.275<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.507<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To improve my sense of self-worth<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.962<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.904<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.928<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.998<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To share a group identity with other participants<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.267<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.965<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.113<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.428<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

It is a positive emotional experience<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.905<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.854<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.744<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.074<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To feel proud of myself<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.498<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.964<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.328<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.676<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To visit with friends<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.304<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.018<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.943<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.684<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To feel a sense of achievement<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.142<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.610<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.000<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.291<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To push myself beyond my current limit<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.214<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.707<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.148<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.282<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To have time alone to sought things out<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.650<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.847<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.605<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.698<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To say in physical condition<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.438<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.645<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.381<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.498<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To concentrate on my thoughts<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.766<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.870<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.800<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.729<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To solve problems<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.388<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.693<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.374<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.404<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To see how high I can place in my sport<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.310<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.116<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.563<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.045<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To feel a sense of belonging in nature<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.677<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.876<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.633<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.723<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To stay physically attractive<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.880<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.019<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.862<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.899<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To get a better performance than my friends<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.628<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.815<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.923<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.318<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To prevent illness<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.151<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.034<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.168<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.133<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

People will look up to me<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.476<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.671<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.579<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.369<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To see if I can beat a certain performance<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.183<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.112<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.451<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.901<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To blow off steam<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.984<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.926<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.924<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.048<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Brings me recognition<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.596<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.743<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.750<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.435<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To have time alone with the world<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.329<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.756<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.372<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.285<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To get away from it all<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.673<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.856<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.608<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.740<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To make my body better than before<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.345<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.960<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.414<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.273<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To beat someone I’ve never beaten before<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.104<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.041<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.342<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.855<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To feel mentally in my control of my body<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.662<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.057<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.744<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.577<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To get compliments from others<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.464<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.657<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.575<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.347<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To feel at peace with the world<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.634<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.868<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.630<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.638<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To feel like a winner<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.500<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.042<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.583<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.413<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/table>\n

Table 2 reports a comparison made between genders for each of the 56 questions using a Welch two sample t-test, a t-test preferable over Student\u2019s t-test due to no dependence on equal variances between independent groups (38, 46).<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

Item Constructs<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Welch two sample t-test<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Interpretation<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

t<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

p-value<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To control my weight <\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.780<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.000159<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To compete with others<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-5.625<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.988e-08<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To earn respect of peers<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-5.675<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.487e-08<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To reduce my weight<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.759<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.07874<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To improve my sporting performance<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.704<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.4814<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To earn respect of people in general<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-3.938<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

8.378e-05<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To socialize with other participants<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

10.291<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

< 2.2e-16<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To improve my health<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.671<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.007589<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To compete with myself<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-6.338<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.595e-10<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To become less anxious<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.247<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.8051<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To improve my self-esteem<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.425<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.6707<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To have something in common with other people<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.435<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.0005991<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To add a sense of meaning to my life<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.589<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.0003363<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To prolong my life<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-1.482<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.1385<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To become less depressed<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.965<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.3348<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To meet people<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

9.359<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

< 2.2e-16<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To become more physically fit<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.026<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.237e-07<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To distract myself from daily worries<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.197<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.2316<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To make my family and friends proud of me<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.769<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.4418<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To make my life more purposeful<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.589<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.009667<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To look leaner<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.880<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.003995<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To try to perform better<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-2.528<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.01151<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To feel more confident about myself<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.127<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.001782<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To participate with my family or friends<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

9.569<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

< 2.2e-16<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To make myself feel whole<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.965<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.3346<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To reduce my chance of having a heart attack<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-3.809<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.0001418<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To make myself more complete<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-0.273<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.7852<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To improve my mood<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.671<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.0002447<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To improve my sense of self-worth<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.152<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.2496<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To share a group identity with other participants<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.033<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.057e-07<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

It is a positive emotional experience<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.599<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.299e-08<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To feel proud of myself<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.571<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.698e-08<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To visit with friends<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

11.685<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

< 2.2e-16<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To feel a sense of achievement<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.674<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.493e-08<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To push myself beyond my current limit<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.456<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.01408<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To have time alone to sought things out<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.569<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.1167<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To say in physical condition<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.237<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.02534<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To concentrate on my thoughts<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-1.182<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.2373<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To solve problems<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.563<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.5737<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To see how high I can place in my sport<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-7.711<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.578e-14<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To feel a sense of belonging in nature<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.498<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.1341<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To stay physically attractive<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.576<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.5643<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To get a better performance than my friends<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-10.622<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

< 2.2e-16<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To prevent illness<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-0.534<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.5932<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

People will look up to me<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-3.956<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

7.745e-05<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To see if I can beat a certain performance<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-8.217<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.816e-16<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To blow off steam<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.017<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.04382<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Brings me recognition<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-5.695<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.323e-08<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To have time alone with the world<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-1.561<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.1186<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To get away from it all<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.216<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.02677<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Female score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To make my body better than before<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-2.256<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.02411<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To beat someone I’ve never beaten before<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-7.536<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.978e-14<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To feel mentally in my control of my body<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-2.538<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.0112<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To get compliments from others<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-4.328<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.544e-05<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To feel at peace with the world<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.131<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.8961<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

NS<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

To feel like a winner<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

-2.610<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.009089<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Male score significantly higher<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/table>\n

From Table 1 there were similarities in the results for the 56 questions, with the same group of questions getting higher scores for males and females (and overall). The questions getting the highest ranking as motivational reasons behind competition at the Sydney WMG were \u201cto compete with others\u201d, \u201cto improve my sporting performance\u201d, \u201cto socialize with other participants\u201d, \u201cto improve my health\u201d, \u201cto become more physically fit\u201d, \u201cto feel a sense of achievement\u201d, \u201cto push myself beyond my current limit\u201d and \u201cto say in physical condition\u201d. The reasons for motivation \u201cto meet people\u201d, \u201cto participate with my family or friends\u201d and \u201cit is a positive emotional experience\u201d scored higher with females (mean Likert score above 5.0) than for males (mean Likert score below 5.0). From Table 2, it can be seen that female Likert scores for these motivations for competition were significantly (p <0.001) higher than for their male counterparts.<\/p>\n

For males the questions that elicited the lowest response scores, as least motivating reasons behind competition were in order of ascending score (least relevant reason first): \u201cto become less depressed\u201d, \u201cto have time alone with the world\u201d, \u201cto solve problems\u201d, \u201cto become less anxious\u201d, \u201cto get compliments from others\u201d, \u201cpeople will look up to me\u201d. For females those questions eliciting the lowest scores were (in ascending order by score): \u201cto have time alone with the world\u201d, \u201cto get a better performance than my friends\u201d, \u201cto get compliments from others\u201d, \u201cpeople will look up to me\u201d, \u201cto solve problems\u201d, \u201cbrings me recognition\u201d and \u201cto become less depressed\u201d. The psychological questions that scored lower for males also scored lower for females and vice versa, however there were differences as per Table 2, such as the question \u201cto get a better performance than my friends\u201d, which was significantly (p<0.0001) different with males rating the question higher on the Likert scale than females.<\/p>\n

From Table 2, many of the questions demonstrated significantly higher importance as motivating factors when compared between the two genders. The questions: \u201cto reduce my weight\u201d, \u201cto improve my sporting performance\u201d, \u201cto become less anxious\u201d, \u201cto improve my self-esteem\u201d, \u201cto prolong my life\u201d, \u201cto become less depressed\u201d, \u201cto distract myself from daily worries\u201d, \u201cto make my family and friends proud of me\u201d, \u201cto make myself feel whole\u201d, \u201cto make myself more complete\u201d, \u201cto improve my sense of self-worth\u201d, \u201cto have time alone to sought things out\u201d, \u201cto concentrate on my thoughts\u201d, \u201cto solve problems\u201d, \u201cto feel a sense of belonging in nature\u201d, \u201cto stay physically attractive\u201d, \u201cto prevent illness\u201d, \u201cto have time alone with the world\u201d and \u201cto feel at peace with the world\u201d, were all not significantly (p>0.05) different when compared between the two genders.<\/p>\n

DISCUSSION<\/strong>
\nNineteen questions were not significantly (p>0.05) different when compared between the two genders. These nineteen questions, represented less than half of the 56 questions in the psychometric survey tool. Given so many individual questions demonstrated significantly different scoring for the two genders it is relevant in the context of the predictive modelling approaches based on the MOMS (66, 67) using gradient boosting (17) and ridge regression (33). In these papers (66, 67) the underlying factors linking the 56 questions were not used in their analysis and instead the raw 56 questions were used. This gave a higher accuracy at predicting gender than had been achieved in preceding research (25) using a multiplayer perceptron neural network (14). The finding that so many of the questions gave statistically significant differences for the two genders, gives further support to the logic behind this particular approach at using more questions for analysis as opposed to the overarching factors combining multiple questions.<\/p>\n

From Table 1, as would be expected from past research findings on the MOMS at the Sydney WMG (21), the most motivation for the cohort as a whole was given by the item construct \u201cto socialize with other participants\u201d. For female masters athletes, this was the highest ranked item construct, with a mean Likert score of 5.960 out of 7. For males this construct also scored highly but was in fact the third highest ranked construct with \u201cto become more physically fit\u201d and \u201cto improve my health\u201d scoring higher. Females also scored highly on these other two constructs with scores which were in fact statistically significantly higher for both constructs than for males (as per Table 2). These findings would suggest as per previous research (21) that as \u201cto socialize with other participants\u201d was the highest scoring item construct, marketing endeavours to promote masters sport participation should focus on the socialising aspect of sport. As males scored highest on the construct \u201cto become more physically fit\u201d, therefore this construct would be the method of choice to targeted marketing initiatives addressed at males only, with \u201cto improve my health\u201d following as the second and \u201cto socialize with other participants\u201d as the third choice.<\/p>\n

Amongst the lowest scoring item constructs was the construct \u201cto have time alone with the world\u201d, which scored a mean of 2.329 (standard deviation 1.756, male mean 2.372, female mean 2.285). This is logical as many masters competitors were competing in team events such as soccer, rugby union, softball, volleyball or touch football (a variation of touch rugby (65) that is one of the most popular sports in Australia and New Zealand (61)). In such team sports there would presumably be less time to be alone when training or competing than in marathon running (the environment under which the MOMS scale was originally designed (37)). The item constructs \u201cto become less anxious\u201d and \u201cto become less depressed\u201d demonstrated low mean scores compared to the majority of other constructs, both for the two genders combined (mean scores 2.461 and 2.399 on the seven-point Likert scale) as well as for males (means 2.454 and 2.371) and females (means 2.468 and 2.429) considered individually. These lower mean scores may be due to there only being a proportion of the masters cohort that suffered from anxiety or depression for whom these two questions were relevant, which may have resulted in a lower mean score across the cohort as a whole. This is confirmed in the literature (6), where 6.3% of the Sydney WMG cohort indicated they suffered from depression. It should be noted that based upon normative comparisons the incidence of depression was reported as high for Sydney\u2019s 2009 WMG participants (6), though other masters cohorts have shown significantly less incidence of anxiety and depression than comparative data on the national population (8). Therefore, whilst only a small proportion of the cohort might find relevance in these two item constructs (depression and anxiety), for those who suffered from these disorders there may be a much higher degree of relevance and in turn the incidence in the Sydney WMG sample was considered as high compared to norms (6). It is accepted that exercise prescription has demonstrated benefits for mental health conditions such as depression (51). Of note, there was no significant difference detected via the Welch two sample t-test between the scores for males or females on these two item constructs (depression and anxiety), thought females did score both questions higher (though statistically non-significantly different). Therefore, no significant gender-based difference was apparent within this analysis confined to Likert scale mean scores.<\/p>\n

In the literature (21), mental health constructs such as depression and anxiety were also demonstrated to be considered as not being important determinants of participation for WMG masters athletes. The alternative methodology in Heazlewood et al. (21) additionally identified the mental health constructs self-esteem, daily worries, improving mood and having a more purposeful life as not important determinants. These constructs had mean scores below the mean of all mean scores (3.717, approximated to three decimal places) of all 56 constructs measured. These scores (combined mean score by gender) were self-esteem (3.075), daily worries (3.294), improving mood (3.388) and having a more purposeful life (3.310).Whilst still scoring lower than the mean of the mean values calculated for the 56 other questions, females scored higher than males on all four of these mental health construct questions, this difference was larger enough to be statistically significant for the constructs \u201cto improve my mood\u201d (p<0.01) and \u201cto make my life more purposeful\u201d (p<0.0005). Whilst females scored higher than males in these mental health constructs in terms of their relevance for motivation behind participation at the WMG, as per the suggestion in Heazlewood et al. (21), it would be advised against marketing initiatives to promote participation in masters sports based on these mental health constructs as they may not be successful if utilised to promote participation, due to a low importance placed upon them by the majority of participants.<\/p>\n

Whatman (68), indicated that in Australia (where the majority of competitors at the Sydney WMG were from (6)), health\/fitness were major reasons behind participation in sport (>55% of respondents), followed to a lesser extent by enjoyment (22% of respondents). In our findings the construct \u201cto improve my health\u201d was one of the highest scoring constructs, for both males and females (though females scored significantly higher, p<0.01), with mean Likert score of 5.554 (both genders combined). Similarly, fitness was also identified as a major reason behind participation in line with the results reported by Whatman (68). Males and females (females significantly higher, p < 0.000001) both rated the construct \u201cto become more physically fit\u201d as one of the highest on the Likert scale (mean score for both genders combined 5.669). The MOMS scale does not have a question that directly translates to enjoyment, but a similar proxy would be \u201cit is a positive emotional experience\u201d, a construct that scored relatively highly for males and also females (though significantly higher for females, p < 0.0000001). It should be noted as per Heazlewood et al., 2011 (that applied an alternative assessment methodology) fitness constructs were rated more highly than weight control type constructs (e.g. \u201cto control my weight\u201d Likert mean 3.593 vs. \u201cto become more physically fit\u201d mean 5.669, numbers that in context of standard deviations are statistically significantly different, by inspection).<\/p>\n

As the mean Likert score for weight control was statistically significantly lower than other constructs, the recommendation would be that to promote participation at masters events, marketing strategies should focus on other constructs. This is important to consider as research has shown associated positive outcomes in terms of obesity (53, 54, 60, 62, 63), reduced injury incidence and classification (9, 55, 9, 64) and reduced incidence of health-related diseases and some disorders (6-7, 10-13, 56-58) at the WMG. It would be recommended that constructs such as \u201cto compete with others\u201d, \u201cto improve my sporting performance\u201d, \u201cto socialize with other participants\u201d, \u201cto improve my health\u201d, \u201cto become more physically fit\u201d, \u201cto feel a sense of achievement\u201d, \u201cto push myself beyond my current limit\u201d and \u201cto say in physical condition\u201d would all provided a more targeted strategy.<\/p>\n

CONCLUSIONS<\/strong>
\nFor promotion of participation in masters sport and by inference physical activity at older ages, marketing initiatives should focus on such constructs as \u201cto compete with others\u201d, \u201cto improve my sporting performance\u201d, \u201cto socialize with other participants\u201d, \u201cto improve my health\u201d, \u201cto become more physically fit\u201d, \u201cto feel a sense of achievement\u201d, \u201cto push myself beyond my current limit\u201d and \u201cto stay in physical condition\u201d. The most motivation for the cohort as a whole was given by the item construct \u201cto socialize with other participants\u201d, though there were significant differences between the two genders. The weight control questions indicated these athletes did not place priority on this construct, thus focusing marketing initiatives on other constructs, such as for example weight control may be ineffective.<\/p>\n

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT<\/strong>
\nIn order to promote sport participation at older ages, focus should be placed on marketing the socialization aspects of sport. Though other constructs were also considered important to older athletes (such as competition, health and fitness), weight control was not considered an important construct, therefore marketing initiatives should avoid focusing on weight control as such a focus is likely to be ineffective for sport promotion.<\/p>\n

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<\/strong>
\nAssistance was provided by the Sydney WMG Committee. We appreciate IT support from Evan Wills. We acknowledge the useful comments provided by the journal on review of the manuscript, with some beneficial additions included in the manuscript in response to reviewer suggestions. We would like to thank especially the Sydney WMG masters athletes who took the time to participate in this project.<\/p>\n

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69.\tWhiteson, J. H., Bartels, M. N., Kim, H., & Alba, A. S. (2006). Coronary artery disease in masters-level athletes. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 87(3), 79-81.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Authors: Joe Walsh, Ian Timothy Heazlewood, Mark DeBeliso, Mike Climstein […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_is_tweetstorm":false,"jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_options":[]},"categories":[994,898],"tags":[478,1396,1276,1397],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/p4btio-1xg","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":6416,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/endurance-masters-athletes-a-model-of-successful-ageing-with-clinically-superior-bmi\/","url_meta":{"origin":5906,"position":0},"title":"Endurance masters athletes: A model of successful ageing with clinically superior BMI?","date":"April 25, 2019","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: Mike Climstein, PhD, FASMF, FACSM, FAAESS, Joe Walsh, MSc, Ian Timothy Heazlewood, PhD, Mark DeBeliso, PhD, FACSM Corresponding Author:Dr. Mike ClimsteinClinical Exercise Physiology, School of Health and Human SciencesSouthern Cross University (Gold Coast Campus)Bilinga,\u00a0 Qld 4225Australiamichael.climstein@scu.edu.au+617 5509 3330 Dr. Mike Climstein (FASMF, FACSM, FAAESS, AEP) is with Clinical Exercise\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Research"","img":{"alt_text":"Figure 1. CONSORT flow diagram of seach strategy","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/04\/Figure-1.-CONSORT-flow-diagram-of-seach-strategy.jpg?resize=350%2C200&ssl=1","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":7449,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/general-health-orientation-based-psychological-motivations-for-masters-athletes-a-consideration-of-clustering-utilizing-t-distributed-stochastic-neighbor-embedding\/","url_meta":{"origin":5906,"position":1},"title":"General health orientation based psychological motivations for masters athletes, a consideration of clustering utilizing t-distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding","date":"August 21, 2020","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: Joe Walsh, Ian Timothy Heazlewood, Mark DeBeliso, Mike Climstein Corresponding Author:Dr. Mike Climstein (FASMF, FACSM, FAAESS)Clinical Exercise PhysiologySouthern Cross UniversitySchool of Health and Human SciencesGold Coast, Queensland, AustraliaMichael.Climstein@scu.edu.au Dr. Joe Walsh is with Sport Science Institute www.sportscienceinstitute.com Ian Timothy Heazlewood is Associate Professor and Theme Leader Exercise and Sport\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Research"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/07\/Figure_1_LR100.png?resize=350%2C200&ssl=1","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":1778,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/world-masters-games-north-american-participant-medical-and-health-history-survey\/","url_meta":{"origin":5906,"position":2},"title":"World Masters Games: North American Participant Medical and Health History Survey","date":"April 17, 2014","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by Mark DeBeliso, Joe Walsh, Mike Climstein, Ian Timothy Heazlewood, Jyrki Kettunen, Trish Sevene and Kent Adams ABSTRACT Athletes competing at the World Masters Games have either initiated exercise later in life or pursued a physically active lifestyle for an extended period. \u00a0There is a paucity of information regarding\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"Figure1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/04\/Figure1.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":7561,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/student-athletes-an-exploration-of-subjective-wellbeing\/","url_meta":{"origin":5906,"position":3},"title":"Student-Athletes: An exploration of subjective wellbeing","date":"September 2, 2020","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: Laura M. Morris1, Danny Twilley2, Cara L. Sidman3, Hannah Adamczyk1, Zoe Gasell1, and Karly Plemmons1 1School of Health & Applied Human Sciences, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC, USA2Outdoor Economic Development Collaborative, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA3College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA Corresponding\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Research"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":6142,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/the-working-alliance-and-satisfaction-with-the-coach-athlete-relationship-among-norwegian-elite-swimmers\/","url_meta":{"origin":5906,"position":4},"title":"The Working Alliance and Satisfaction with the Coach-Athlete relationship among Norwegian elite swimmers","date":"November 15, 2018","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: F. Moen(1), R. Anstensen(1), M. Hrozanova(2), T. C. Stiles(3) Corresponding Author: Frode Moen, PhD Department of Education and Lifelong learning, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, N-7491 Trondheim, Norway frode.moen@ntnu.no +47 93 24 87 50 Frode Moen is a mental trainer for elite athletes and coaches at the Norwegian\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Research"","img":{"alt_text":"Table 1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/Table-1-1.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":1832,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/disordered-eating-eating-attitudes-and-reasons-for-exercise-among-male-high-school-cross-country-runners\/","url_meta":{"origin":5906,"position":5},"title":"Disordered Eating, Eating Attitudes, and Reasons for Exercise among Male High School Cross Country Runners","date":"April 28, 2014","format":false,"excerpt":"ABSTRACT PURPOSE: This study investigated the prevalence of disordered eating behaviors among male high school cross country runners. The study identified behaviors and feelings about being an athlete, and determined relationships between motivations to exercise and disordered eating behaviors. METHODS: Sixty-eight male high school cross country runners from 12 high\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"Capture1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/04\/Capture11.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]}],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5906"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=5906"}],"version-history":[{"count":7,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5906\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":5913,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5906\/revisions\/5913"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=5906"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=5906"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=5906"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}