{"id":57,"date":"2008-02-11T15:32:34","date_gmt":"2008-02-11T15:32:34","guid":{"rendered":""},"modified":"2013-11-27T17:36:10","modified_gmt":"2013-11-27T17:36:10","slug":"music-in-sport-and-exercise-theory-and-practice","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/music-in-sport-and-exercise-theory-and-practice\/","title":{"rendered":"Music in Sport and Exercise: Theory and Practice"},"content":{"rendered":"
Submitted by: Dr. C. I. Karageorghis, Ph.D.<\/div>\n

This article has been inspired
\nby six years of doctoral research in which I found that the “right”
\nmusic can have a very positive impact on sport and exercise performance.
\nI am grateful to the Academy for cultivating my interest in the
\narea of psychophysical responses to music during my master’s
\nprogramme in 1991\/92. I am also pleased to be invited to share
\nmy findings with you, the coaches and fitness professionals.<\/p>\n

How Does Music Aid Athletic
\nPerformance?<\/em>
\nA review of this area (Karageorghis & Terry, 1997) based
\non a meta-analytic study I conducted at the Academy, revealed
\nfour main ways which music may aid performance in sport and exercise.
\nFirst, during submaximal repetitive exercise such as running,
\nmusic can narrow a performer’s attention and as a consequence,
\ndivert attention away from sensations of fatigue. This is a technique
\nwhich many marathon runners and triathletes refer to as dissociation,
\ni.e., focusing on stimuli unrelated to the task such as the surroundings
\nor conducting mental arithmetic. Effective dissociation tends
\nto promote a positive mood state through the avoidance of thoughts
\nthat relate to the fatigue component of mood.<\/p>\n

Second, music alters arousal levels and can therefore be used as a form of stimulant prior
\nto competition or as a sedative to calm over-anxious athletes
\n(see Karageorghis, Drew, & Terry, 1996). One of the interventions
\nI often use involves the production of audio cassettes containing
\nstimulative music combined with verbal suggestions as a psych-up
\nstrategy. Similarly, I use sedative music as a backdrop for relaxation
\ntechniques that are administered via verbal instruction.<\/p>\n

Third, music is beneficial
\nas a result of the similarities between rhythm and human movement;
\nhence, the synchronization of music with exercise consistently
\ndemonstrates increased levels of work output among exercise participants
\n(see Karageorghis & Terry, 1997, for review). Fourth, in
\nrelation to the previous point, the rhythmical qualities of music
\nalso emulate patterns of physical skills; therefore, music can
\nenhance the acquisition of motor skills and create a better learning
\nenvironment. There is evidence from both gymnastics and swimming
\nin support of this (Chen, 1985; Jernberg, 1981).<\/p>\n

Selecting the “Right”
\nMusic<\/em>
\nOur recent work (Karageorghis, Terry, & Lane, 1997) indicates
\nthat there are four key factors that influence the motivational
\nqualities of music. First, owing to the fact that people have
\nan underlying predisposition to react to rhythmical stimuli,
\nthe Rhythmic Response to the music is the most salient factor.
\nSecond, the melodic and harmonic aspects of music shape the listener’s
\ninterpretation and influence mood state. I refer to this factor
\nas Musicality. Third, the Cultural Impact of music will influence
\nthe listener’s response through socio-cultural upbringing and
\nprevious exposure to music. Fourth, the Association factor which
\nrelates to the extra-musical associations evoked by music, i.e.,
\nsound can promote sounds that inspire physical activity. The
\nRhythmic Response and Musicality factors are internal to the
\ncomposition of music, whereas the Cultural Impact and Association
\nfactors are external to the music relating to personal interpretation
\nof music (see Figure 1). Our research shows that the internal
\nfactors are more important in predicting how a person will respond
\nto a piece of music than the external factors.<\/p>\n

We have developed and validated a questionnaire to rate the motivational qualities of music which
\nis called the Brunel Music Rating Inventory (BMRI: Karageorghis
\net al., 1997). For a piece of music to truly inspire the listener,
\nit must have strong rhythmic qualities that match the activity
\nat hand and also a tempo which matches the predicted heart rate.
\nThe melody and harmony of the music should promote a positive
\nmood state; that is, they should energize the listener and increase
\nvigor. The music should also stem from the listener’s socio-cultural
\nbackground and comply with their preferences. Finally, it is
\nideal that for the music to be associated with physical activity
\neither through the lyrics, e.g., Work Your Body!, or its association
\nwith other media such as film or TV. A classic example of such
\na track would be Survivor’s “Eye of the Tiger”, which
\nwas a theme from the Rocky series.<\/p>\n

There are three additional
\nconsiderations when selecting music: a) Variety in the music
\ntends to maintain athletes’ interest in the activity; b) the
\nvolume of the music should not be obscured by the noise of the
\nexercise environment; and c) if synchronizing music with exercise,
\nthe tempo must concur with the preferred work rate. For example,
\nif you are swimming using the breast stroke at a rate of 100
\nstrokes per minute, it would be sensible to use music playing
\nat 100 beats per minute (bpm). Alternatively, breast stroking
\nat a rate of 60 strokes per minute a tempo of 120 bpm can be
\nused as the swimmer can take one stroke every two beats.<\/p>\n

Music and Flow State<\/em>
\nOur most recent research (Karageorghis & Terry, 1998) has
\nrevealed an interesting link between music and the attainment
\nof flow state during aerobic dance exercise. Flow involves an
\naltered state of awareness during physical activity in which
\nthe mind and body function on “auto-pilot” with minimal
\nconscious effort. Some coaches refer to this as being “in
\nthe zone”; it is an almost trance-like or hypnotic state.
\nFlow has been associated with optimal psychological state and
\nrepresents complete enjoyment of and immersion in physical activity.
\nOur study involved 1,231 aerobic dance participants who were
\nasked to rate the motivational qualities of the music used during
\na class on completion of their workout using the BMRI. They also
\nrated flow using the Flow State Scale, a 36 item questionnaire
\ndeveloped by Jackson and Marsh (1996). The results revealed a
\nvery significant association between ratings of music and ratings
\nof flow. We concluded that music may have a considerable effect
\non enjoyment levels during exercise an selecting the “right”
\nmusic may be a key factor in maintaining adherence to exercise.<\/p>\n

Conclusion<\/em>
\nMusic is an often untapped source of both motivation and inspiration
\nfor sport and exercise participants. One important point to remember
\nis that musical preference is very personal indeed; that is the
\nreason for which I have avoided suggesting which music you should
\nprescribe for your athletes and exercise participants. That is
\nentirely your decision. However, you should now be aware of some
\nfactors that make listening to music more rewarding in sport
\nand exercise settings. Happy listening!<\/p>\n

Dr. Costas Karageorghis is
\na BASES accredited scientific support and research sport and
\nexercise psychologist. He is a member of the British Olympic
\nAssociation Psychology Advisory Group and lectures in sport psychology
\nat Brunel University’s Department of Sport Sciences. Further,
\nDr. Karageorghis is an alumnus of the USSA MSS program and acts
\nas the United Kingdom academic representative. E-mail: costas.karageorghis@brunel.ac.uk<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Submitted by: Dr. C. I. Karageorghis, Ph.D.<\/div>\n

This article has been inspired
\n by six years of doctoral research in which I found that the "right"
\n music can have a very positive impact on sport and exercise performance.
\n I am grateful to the Academy for cultivating my interest in the
\n area of psychophysical responses to music during my master’s
\n programme in 1991\/92. I am also pleased to be invited to share
\n my findings with you, the coaches and fitness professionals.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_is_tweetstorm":false,"jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_options":[]},"categories":[292,296],"tags":[8,20,24,31],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/p4btio-V","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":315,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/music-sport-and-exercise-update-research-and-application\/","url_meta":{"origin":57,"position":0},"title":"Music in Sport and Exercise : An Update on Research and Application","date":"July 7, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Costas Karageorghis and David-Lee Priest - Brunel University Abstract In spring 1999, almost a decade ago, the first author published in The Sport Journal an article titled \u201cMusic in Sport and Exercise: Theory and Practice.\u201d The present article\u2019s origins are in that earlier work and the first author\u2019s\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports Exercise Science"","img":{"alt_text":"Figure 1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2008\/07\/Music-Figure-1-1024x565.png?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":442,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/the-effect-of-music-listening-on-running-performance-and-rating-of-perceived-exertion-of-college-students\/","url_meta":{"origin":57,"position":1},"title":"The Effect of Music Listening on Running Performance and Rating of Perceived Exertion of College Students","date":"January 3, 2012","format":false,"excerpt":"Randy Bonnette, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi; Morgan C. Smith III, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi; Frank Spaniol, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi; Liette Ocker, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi; Don Melrose, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi ### Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate how listening to music while running affects performance\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports Exercise Science"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":64,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/entering-the-zone-a-guide-for-coaches\/","url_meta":{"origin":57,"position":2},"title":"Entering “The Zone” : A Guide for Coaches","date":"February 12, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Dr. Costas KarageorghisAsk any champion athlete whether their state of mind is an important component of sporting performance and the answer will always be the same - a resounding \"YES!\". At the highest level, mindset is the crucial factor that separates winners from losers. The ideal mindset enables\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports Coaching"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":219,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/book-review-how-to-raise-a-successful-athlete-what-you-need-to-know-to-raise-a-successful-athlete\/","url_meta":{"origin":57,"position":3},"title":"Book Review: How to Raise A Successful Athlete: What you need to know to raise a successful athlete","date":"January 9, 2006","format":false,"excerpt":"Reviewed by: Brianna Smith How To Raise a Successful Athlete is a great text for the \u2018layman\u2019 interested in expanding his or her knowledge of basic sport-related topics. It is easy to comprehend the information regarding nutrition, physiology, biomechanics, strength training, sport psychology, as well as coaching and medical topics.\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports Exercise Science"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":72,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/ioc-culture-and-olympic-education-forum-linking-sports-with-culture\/","url_meta":{"origin":57,"position":4},"title":"IOC Culture and Olympic Education Forum : Linking sports with culture and education in the framework of the Cultural Olympiad","date":"February 13, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Constantinos Cartalis As far back as Geometric times, athletic exercise, music and dance constituted the three basic elements in the education of the young Athenians. The education of the young people of Athens had one central goal: to train them to grasp a sense of rhythm and control\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports History"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":67,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/ioc-culture-and-olympic-education-forum-prejudice\/","url_meta":{"origin":57,"position":5},"title":"IOC Culture and Olympic Education Forum : Prejudice – the link that affects both the world of culture and the world of sports,","date":"February 13, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Mrs. Maria Jo\u00e3o Seixas Let's be frank, and not fear words: cultured people\/intellectuals, are normally classed as \"boring\" or, at best, \"utopian\"; sports people, devoted to the development of excellence in physical performance, supposedly do not make much use of reason or thought processes. 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