{"id":472,"date":"2012-11-19T09:16:36","date_gmt":"2012-11-19T15:16:36","guid":{"rendered":""},"modified":"2017-08-03T10:40:00","modified_gmt":"2017-08-03T15:40:00","slug":"footwear-trends","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/footwear-trends\/","title":{"rendered":"Footwear Trends: Should Sport & Fitness Enthusiasts Embrace the Minimalist Movement?"},"content":{"rendered":"
Danielle (Perkins) Holsomback & Kayla Peak<\/div>\n

ABSTRACT<\/h3>\n

The popularity of the barefoot movement in sports and fitness activities has soared within the past few years as evidenced by a growing community of minimalist footwear enthusiasts wearing the \u2018glove\u2019 shoes in their sporting endeavors, fitness workouts, and everyday leisure activities. This emergence of the minimalist shoes, such as the Nike Free\u00a9 and Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae, has created a wave of intrigue for those sport and fitness enthusiasts wanting a natural running experience without being subjected to the hazards of the road. Whether running barefoot, in shoes or in minimal footwear, the trends in footwear preference have caused much debate between researchers as to which form causes more injuries and\/or best serves to enhance athletic performance. As sport and fitness professionals, it is important to thoroughly examine the current footwear trends to develop a \u2018best practices\u2019 approach for advising our athletes and clients.<\/p>\n

INTRODUCTION<\/h3>\n

Running has been a natural form of transportation since the beginning of time when our ancestors ran in order to hunt and gather food to survive. Since shoes did not exist at the time, people engaged in everyday activities barefoot. The evolution of the shoe has changed dramatically over time, from animal skin moccasins to leather dress-wear to rawhide boots; yet a shoe dedicated to athletic endeavors is a relatively recent phenomenon. Introduced in the 1960\u2019s, the rudimentary running shoe (canvas and leather) provided athletes with a footwear option that is better suited for sporting events (10, 4). Since the latter part of the twentieth century, the public has been wearing running shoes everywhere: they train, compete, and wear their running shoes as everyday leisure and fitness wear.<\/p>\n

Although the running shoe has become a way for people to express their style, many runners are converting back to barefoot running or minimalist footwear
\nsuch as the Nike Free\u00a9 and Vibram FiveFingers shoes\u00ae. Fitness enthusiasts are participating in barefoot warm-ups and cool-downs in hopes of enhancing
\ntheir performance on the court, field, and track.<\/p>\n

The trends in footwear preference has caused much debate among researchers as to which form causes more injuries. Researchers have observed humans running
\nbarefoot, in shoes and\/or in minimal footwear while on various running surfaces. The occurrence of injuries seemed to rely on the product, running experience,
\nand environment. Each study has found many pros and cons to running shod and non-traditionally. To understand shod running and non-traditional running, characteristics
\nneed to be identified for both. Shod running is running in the modern running shoe and non-traditional running includes barefoot or the wearing of minimalist
\nfootwear. This paper will discuss the history of running, non-traditional running, injuries related to running, and practical applications for the sport and fitness
\nprofessional.
\nHistory of Running<\/strong>
\nWhen did humans begin to run? This question has been intriguing researchers for years. Bramble and Lieberman (4) indicated, \u201cthe fossil evidence of
\nthese features suggests that endurance running is a derived capability of the genus, Homo, originating about 2 million years ago, and may have been instrumental
\nin the evolution of the human body form\u201d (p. 345). The physiological features of the human form included stride length, spring-like tendons, thermoregulation,
\nrespiration, and the ability to run for long periods of time over great distances (10, 4). Unlike many animals that can run at high speeds for several minutes,
\nhumans have the capability to run at slower speeds for long distances. In fact, humans have been identified as the only primates capable of endurance running
\n(10).
\n
\nHow People Ran Without Running Shoes
\n<\/em>Our ancestors ran barefoot and did so for long periods of time. The evolution from walking to running, a locomotor skill that man developed in an effort to
\nmore efficiently and effectively hunt their food, provided evidence that the human body was designed to run for long distances (4, 10). Daniel Lieberman
\n(10) studied populations of runners in Kenya and the United States to determine the difference in running gaits between three groups; \u201cthose who had always
\nrun barefoot, those who had always worn shoes, and those who had converted to barefoot running from shod running\u201d ( p. 1). The study concluded that
\nbarefoot runners strike the ground on the middle of their foot first and shod runners hit the ground heel first. Hitting the ground heel first produced injuries
\non the lower extremities of the body, including the ankles, knees, and hips. Less impact was generated in mid-foot striking because this part of the foot
\nnaturally has more cushioning. Runners in traditional shoes \u201cexperience a very large and sudden collision force about 1,000 times per mile run \u2026.
\nbarefoot [runners], however, tend to land with a springy step towards the middle or front of the foot\u201d (10, p. 1).
\nOlympic athletes have also performed barefoot; runners such as Abele Bikila and Zola Budd were the two most famous barefoot runners. Bikila set a new world
\nrecord time of 2:15:16 in the marathon at the 1960 Olympic Games while running barefoot. Zola Budd, another barefoot runner, twice broke the world record in
\nthe women\u2019s 5000m event (14). Although these runners were exceptional examples of the effects barefoot running could have on human athletic performance;
\nthe fact is, the majority of the sporting world wears shoes. This begs the question: what are the design mechanics of running shoes that make them so different from
\nexercising barefoot?<\/p>\n

Invention and Mechanics behind the Traditional Running Shoe<\/em><\/p>\n

The Nike, Inc. (Nike) company is credited with inventing the running shoe as we know it today. Unlike other athletic shoes of the time period, the Nike shoe
\nwas thought to be far superior due to its advanced motion control, heel cushioning, and shock absorption (17). Yet, as reported by Tweeney (17) \u201cstrong evidence
\nshows that thickly cushioned running shoes have done nothing to prevent injury in the 30-odd years since Bill Bowerman invented them\u201d (p. 2).<\/p>\n

Dr. Stephen Pribut, a renowned physician who specializes in Podiatric Sports Medicine, discussed the importance of knowing which type of shoe is appropriate
\nfor each individual sport, as he acknowledged that the development of the traditional running shoe may have led to increased injuries in runners (16). In a 2010 Harvard
\nstudy (10), more than 75 percent of American runners who wore traditional shoes were likely to strike heel first. According to Pribut (16), \u201cthe purpose
\nof an athletic shoe is to protect the foot from the stresses of your sport, while permitting the athlete to achieve his maximum potential\u201d (p. 1).
\nA shoe is made up of the midsole, outer heel, inner heel, fore-foot, and heel counter. These parts of an athletic shoe are designed to make running more comfortable
\nand safe. Yet, injuries can occur due to the basic design mechanics of the shoe; specifically, Achilles tendonitis has been known to occur in people who wear
\nshoes made with hard stiff soles (12, 16, 8, 10), which may lead to increased injuries in the runner.<\/p>\n

Wearing shoes that have outlasted their life span can increase the chances of injury as well. The midsole is designed to absorb shock and loses its capacity
\nto do so as mileage increases. For example, a runner who routinely logs (or completes) 20 miles a week should change their shoes by week 20-25 because the
\nlife of a shoe is typically made to withstand 350-550 miles (16). The sole of a shoe does not factor into the amount of shock absorption (16), so runners
\nare advised to adhere to the 350-550 mileage rule. Length and width are also important. It is recommended to have at least one finger width at the toe of
\nthe shoe and the \u2018widest past of the shoe should be at the widest part of your foot\u2019 (16, p. 3). Tying a shoe too tightly could create sharp
\npain, or even numbness, in the foot. Running with a loose shoe could create too much movement within the box of the shoe.<\/p>\n

The design mechanics, as well as the type of shoe, can affect the overall performance of the athlete. Dr. Pribut described the differences between tennis players
\nwho perform repeated lateral movements as compared to walkers and runners who move forward in a straight line. Racquet sports, such as tennis, badminton,
\nand racquetball, require a lateral motion in which the side-to-side stability of the foot must be provided by a firm shoe design (16). Having an unstable
\nshoe for a sport which relies primarily on lateral movement could result in greater injury to the athlete. Pribut also stated the importance of purchasing
\nsport-specific shoes. Knowledge of the footwork requirements of the particular activity should determine the type of shoe that is worn by the athlete (16).<\/p>\n

Non-Traditional Running<\/strong><\/p>\n

Shoes or no shoes? For centuries, runners have been running barefoot; however, non-traditional running has made a splash in the running world. Athletes as
\nwell as fitness enthusiasts have embraced the concept of minimal footwear by purchasing shoes like the Nike Free\u00a9 and Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae. These
\nminimalist shoes give the feeling of running barefoot but with the added protection of a sole. A popular shoe retailer, Barefoot Running Shoes<\/em>, touted
\nthat the Nike Free\u00a9 strengthens the lower body and feet by imitating barefoot movement (1). The same retailer also advertised the Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae
\nas a shoe which gives the runner the ability to experience the sensation and freedom of going barefoot with the added protection to endure in the \u2018modern
\nenvironment\u2019 (2). The question arises as to whether these types of minimalist footwear have actually reduced the number of injuries seen in runners.
\nMechanics of Barefoot Running<\/em>
\nAs compared to traditional shod running, barefoot running has appeared to have more advantages, as related to health concerns and decreased injury rates. In
\n2004, Divert et al. (7) investigated shod versus barefoot running by examining 35 subjects while running on a treadmill for a specific period of time and speed.
\nThe study called for 31 male and 4 female runners with leisure training experience and no injuries. Two test sessions were administered. The first session required
\nthe subjects to run on the treadmill to become more familiar with running on the treadmill. The second session required the subjects to complete two running
\nperiods (one shod and one barefoot) each for four minutes. The researchers used a Treadmill Dynamometer and an Electromyography (EMG) to record the results
\nof each participant. The EMG measured the Medial Tibialis, Medial Peroneus, Medial Gastrocnemius lateralis, Medial Gastrocnemius medialis and Medial Soleus.
\nThe results revealed lower numbers for barefoot running in contact time, flight time, passive peak, and stride duration. The parameters measured each person
\nrunning around 60 consecutive steps. Divert et al. (7) concluded that \u201cbarefoot running leads to a reduction of impact peak in order to reduce the high mechanical
\nstress occurring during repetitive steps. This neural-mechanical adaptation could also enhance the storage and restitution of elastic energy at the ankle
\nextensors\u201d (p. 593). Thus, the barefoot runners appeared to have a decreased chance for injury.<\/p>\n

What Do the Nike Free\u00a9 and Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae Shoes Offer?<\/em>
\nThe Nike Free\u00a9 and Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae shoes are the newest invention in the world of minimalist footwear. Although running purely barefoot can increase
\na person\u2019s risk of injury by contacting foreign objects on the road or rail, minimalist footwear offers the sensation of running barefoot while protecting
\nthe sole of the foot.
\nAccording to Wilk et al. (19) the \u201cNike Free\u00a9 allows the feet to move through their natural range of motion which creates the feeling and effects
\nof running barefoot\u201d (p. 17). Running while wearing the minimalist shoe has generated increased media attention. The researchers (19) tested runners
\non a treadmill using video-gait analysis to determine if the Nike Free\u00a9 running shoe allowed the foot to move naturally striking mid-foot versus heel
\nfirst. The researchers chose to use the Nike Free\u00a9 rather than having the participants run purely barefoot because of the safety issues involved when
\ntesting on a treadmill. Due to the fact that the foot, ankle, leg, and body experience a great deal of force when running, the objective was to discover
\npossible corrective measures to the subtalar misalignment, which often leads to injuries. The Nike Free\u00a9 allowed the researchers to identify \u201coverpronation,
\nsupination, and other gait abnormalities\u201d characteristic of subtalar conditions. Wilk et al. (19) concluded that the, \u201cNike Free\u00a9, when used with
\nvideo-gait analysis, allows for proper assessment of running biomechanical abnormalities that contribute to injury\u201d (p. 17).
\nThe Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae is another popular type of minimalist footwear that provides the feel of running barefoot without the constricting nature of a traditional
\nrunning shoe. This minimalist shoe fits like a glove on the foot. Author and barefoot runner, Chris McDougall (13), claimed that his problem with plantar
\nfasciitis was healed when he began running in the Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae. According to Tony Post, president and CEO of Vibram USA, the Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae allow
\nthe foot to absorb shock and flex (2). In traditional running shoes, the runner\u2019s stride lengthens and the foot strikes the ground in a heel first fashion. Tweeney
\n(17) concluded that runners could avoid injury by running barefoot or by wearing minimalist footwear; it was simply a matter of going \u2018back to the basics\u2019.
\nThe Nike Free\u00a9 and Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae shoes both offer the characteristics and design mechanics of barefoot running with the added benefit of protecting
\nthe foot from the hazards of the road.
\nInjuries Related to Running
\n<\/strong> Running has steadily increased in popularity in the United States with more than 30 million sport and fitness enthusiastic participating annually
\n(9). Although running has been proven to improve cardiovascular health, lower leg injuries have become more and more prevalent in runners today. Some researchers
\n(12, 19, 16) believe the injuries may be due in part to the structure of the running shoes.
\n <\/em> Shod Running Injuries<\/em>
\nThe modern running shoe has been designed to have more cushioning and shock absorption to prevent the force of shock waves sent up the body when the foot
\nstrikes the ground. According to Lieberman et al. (12), the heel-toe running pattern has led to lower extremity injuries such as plantar fasciitis, Achilles
\ntendonitis, and knee and hip injuries. A traditional shoe limits the proprioceptive abilities and ankle motion of the foot, as well as decreases the opportunity
\nto strengthen the muscles of the feet. The stiff soles of the traditional running shoes have led to weaker foot muscles and reduced arch strength (12, 16, 8,
\n10).
\nShoes have been called the \u201cperceptual illusion\u201d (5) to running because they limit the feet from feeling the surface and striking the ground
\nin a natural movement. Researchers from The Journal of Injury, Function and Rehabilitation<\/em> (8) performed a study on 68 young adult runners, 37
\nof them being women. All the runners ran in typical modern running shoes, had no history of musculoskeletal injuries, and ran 15 miles per week. Each runner
\nwas monitored on a treadmill running with shoes and then running barefoot. After data was collected, the researchers discovered that the runners had increased
\njoint torques at the knee, hip and ankle joints compared to running barefoot.<\/p>\n

According to the research cited thus far, traditional running shoes have been found to increase the rate of injury in runners; however, perhaps the price
\nof a running shoe makes a marked difference in injury rates. Walker and Blair(18) found a 123% increase in injury frequency with expensive shoes over less
\nexpensive shoes. Similarly, another group of researchers (3) conducted a study using nine adults (six men and three women) who were injury free for at least
\nsix months, physically fit, and were accustomed to running on treadmills. The objective was to find the affects of leg stiffness when wearing athletic shoes.
\nThe shoes chosen for the experiment were \u201cathletic joggers\u201d costing $10 (low cost) and \u201clight weight cushioned trainers\u201d costing $65
\n(high cost). The results concluded that cushioned running shoes increase limb stiffness compared to running barefoot. Ultimately, Bishop et al. (3) found
\nthat \u201cfootwear influences the maintenance of stiffness in the lower extremity during hopping and joint excursion at the ankle in running\u201d (p. 387).
\n <\/em> Preventing Running Injuries Through Barefoot Activity<\/em>
\nEvery year runners around the world are diagnosed with high number of injuries (9). This prevalence has brought researchers together to evaluate why the injury
\nrates have increased. Although there is limited research to indicate that runners and other fitness enthusiasts are less injury-prone when wearing running shoes
\n(6), barefoot or minimalist running is not something to just dive into without first testing the proverbial waters. The muscles are not adapted or strong enough
\nyet to take on the degree of strength it takes to run barefoot. Tweeney (17) warned that people should be aware that exercising while barefoot or wearing
\nminimalist shoes should involve a slow transition. It is recommended that those who are not accustomed to barefoot activity begin in their home and then move
\noutside to grass until the muscles have built enough strength and tolerance. Other options for barefoot activity include: yoga, Pilates, and group fitness
\nclasses. The concept of going purely barefoot has not won over many podiatrists who, according to Parker-Pope (15) \u201ccringe at the notion of unshod feet
\npounding the pavement, where the risks include cuts, bruises, and unsanitary conditions\u201d (p.1). However, proponents say barefoot training helps correct
\nform and reduces foot, shin, and muscle injuries (15); thus, leading to fewer injuries to the runners. Many doctors, coaches, podiatrists, and physical therapists
\nagree that people spend too much time in shoes (15, 14, 16) and support the idea of walking around the house, strength training, and\/or running barefoot
\na few times a week on a safe surface preferably in minimal footwear, such as the Nike Free\u00a9 and Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae shoes.<\/p>\n

APPLICATION IN SPORT & FITNESS<\/h3>\n

Fad or New Fitness Standard<\/em>
\nAlthough many professionals believe barefoot or minimalist shoes decrease the amount of injuries and increase performance, there are still those people who
\nbelieve this is a fad that will fade out in time. Fad or not, the Nike Free\u00a9 and Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae can be seen on feet just about everywhere, from
\ncollege campuses and exclusive fitness centers to road races and hiking trails. Interestingly, the Vibram company, which introduced the FiveFingers\u00ae minimalist
\nshoe in 2006, has experienced tripled sales growth (6) each year since the minimalist footwear trend began.
\n Issues within the Sport & Fitness Industry
\n<\/em> The minimalist shoes, Nike Free\u00a9 and Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae, are growing in popularity in the sport and fitness world. Many athletic weight rooms
\nas well as fitness and recreation centers at colleges and universities are permitting the use of these shoes in their facilities. The versatility of these shoes allows
\nthe individual to exercise in many areas, including the weight room, cardiovascular machines, group exercise classes, basketball courts, and even the rock climbing
\nwall. Yet, some athletic performance coaches and facility managers are strict traditionalist and insist that all patrons wear closed-toe athletic shoes, which
\ntranslates to the traditional athletic shoes rather than the minimalist footwear. Perhaps professional conferences or workshops should host sessions which address
\nthe validity of the minimalist shoe as an approved alternative to traditional dress code policies within weight rooms and fitness centers.
\n The Learning Curve: How to Adjust Your Workouts<\/em>
\nMany track and cross country coaches have long endorsed the use of minimalist shoes or even barefoot training in the running world. Barefoot activity, including
\nminimalist shoes, has been proposed as a prevention strategy to help prevent running injuries. Barefoot activity does not necessarily mean running barefoot,
\nbut rather performing various activities barefoot for a period of time each day. These activities range from walking on a smooth trail to running on the
\ngrassy infield of a track. For example, many track and cross country coaches recommend that athletes (sprinters and distance runners) perform their cool-downs
\nbarefoot on the grass of the track infield. If these activities are performed for at least one hour each day, it can lead to increased arch height and muscle
\nstrength. Hart and Smith (2008) reported that the activities performed when barefoot created an arch pattern that \u2018mimics the typical arch observed
\nin barefoot populations\u2019, which have typically reported a very low incidence of running injuries (9).
\nAlthough many fitness professionals have endorsed the barefoot or minimalist shoe movement, Krauss (2011) cautioned that those in the fitness industry should
\nproceed with \u2018proper progression\u2019 as a component of conditioning the feet and lower legs (11). Shanna Moody, Tarleton State University Fitness\/Wellness
\nCoordinator, is a big proponent of going barefoot and\/or wearing the Nike Free\u00a9 or Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae shoes. Shanna\u2019s philosophy as a fitness\/wellness
\nprofessional goes back to the functional aspects of exercise, \u201ctaking off your shoes and strengthening from the feet up is where I think people should
\nbegin.\u201d As described by Ms. Moody, many clients can directly relate their pains and injuries back to the type of shoe they are wearing.<\/p>\n

CONCLUSION<\/h3>\n

The information found on shod running and non-traditional forms of running proves to be very informative in regards to the history, benefits, controversies, and
\ndeveloping interest in the sports and fitness realm. While the advantages of true barefoot running or exercise have been thoroughly documented in the literature,
\nit does not seem to be an ideal training concept for those in the sports and fitness industry as it relates to hygiene and safety issues. However, the increased popularity
\nof minimalist footwear, which has grabbed the attention of researchers as well as runners and recreational athletes, may be a legitimate alternative to the barefoot
\nmovement. The emergence of the minimalist shoe has created a wave of intrigue for those fitness enthusiasts wanting a \u2018natural\u2019 exercise experience,
\nwhile maintaining personal hygiene in the gym. The minimalist footwear also allows runners to \u2018feel\u2019 the foot strikes and reap the physiological benefits
\nof running sans traditional shoe without being subjected to the potential hazards of the road. The Nike Free\u00a9 and Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae shoes have also become
\npopular with those interested in the latest fashion trends. Many individuals are simply wearing the minimalist footwear because it has evolved as this generation\u2019s
\nversion of the flip-flop.<\/p>\n

As sport and fitness professionals, it is important to thoroughly examine the various trends that may impact our athletes and clients. Are the Nike Free\u00a9
\nand Vibram FiveFingers\u00ae shoes simply a passing fashion fad or a fitness footwear trend that will be here for the long run? Historically speaking, humans began
\nrunning and living barefoot . . . it will be interesting to see if minimalist shoes will be a part of the human lifestyle in the future.<\/p>\n

REFERENCES<\/h3>\n

1. Barefoot Running Shoes (2010a). The Nike Free shoes. Retrieved from http:\/\/barefootrunningshoes.org\/nike-free-shoes<\/p>\n

2. Barefoot Running Shoes (2010b). The Vibram FiveFingers shoes. Retrieved
\nfrom http:\/\/barefootrunningshoes.org\/vibram-fivefingers\/<\/p>\n

3. Bishop, M., Fiolkowski, P., Conrad, B., Brunt, D., Horodyski, M. (2006).
\nAthletic footwear, leg stiffness, and running kinematics. Journal of Athletic
\nTraining, 41 (4), 387-392.<\/p>\n

4. Bramble, D.M. & Lieberman, D.E. (2004). Endurance running and the evolution
\nof Homo. Nature, 432, 345-352.<\/p>\n

5. Burfoot, A. (2004). Should you be running barefoot? Runner\u2019s World,
\n39(8), 61-63. Retrieved from Consumer Health Complete database.<\/p>\n

6. Cortese, A. (2009, August 30). Wiggling their toes at the shoe giants. The
\nNew York Times. Retrieved April 20, 2011 from http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2009\/08\/30\/business\/30shoe.html?adxnnl=1&pagewanted=print&…<\/p>\n

7. Divert, C., Mornieux, G., Baur, H., Mayer, F., & Belli, A. (2004). Mechanical
\ncomparison of barefoot and shod running. International Journal of Sports Medicine,
\n26, 593-598.<\/p>\n

8. Elsevier Health Sciences. (2010, January 6). Running shoes may cause damage
\nto knees, hips and ankles, new study suggests. ScienceDaily. Retrieved from
\nhttp:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2010\/01\/100104122310.htm<\/p>\n

9. Hart, P.M, & Smith, D.R. (2008, April). Preventing running injuries
\nthrough barefoot activity. Journal of Physical Exercise, Recreation and Dance,
\n79 (4), 50-53<\/p>\n

10. Harvard University (2010, February 1). Barefoot running: How humans ran
\ncomfortably and safely before the invention of shoes. ScienceDaily. Retrieved
\nfrom http:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2010\/01\/100127134241.htm<\/p>\n

11. Krauss, S.L. (2011, March). Sample class: Barefoot boot camp. IDEA Fitness
\nJournal. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.ideafit.com\/fitness-library\/sample-class-barefoot-boot-camp<\/p>\n

12. Lieberman, D.E., Venkadesan, M., Werbel, W.A., Daoud,A.I., D\u2019Andrea,
\nS., Davis, I.S., et al. (2010, January 28). Foot strike patterns and collision
\nforces in habitually barefoot versus shod runners. Nature. 463, 531-535.<\/p>\n

13. McDougall, C. (2011, March 29). Born to run: A hidden tribe, superathletes,
\nand the greatest race the world has never seen. New York, NY: Vintage Books
\n– A Division of Random House, Inc.<\/p>\n

14. Nigg, B. (2009, July 23). Biomechanical considerations on barefoot movement
\nand barefoot shoe concepts. Footwear Science, 1(2) 73-79<\/p>\n

15. Parker-Pope, T. (2006, June 6). Is barefoot better? The Wall Street Journal.
\nRetrieved from http:\/\/online.wsj.com\/article\/SB114955290339472060.html<\/p>\n

16. Pribut, S.M. (2009, September 2). Athletic shoes: A quick look. [Dr. Stephen
\nM. Pribut\u2019s Sports Pages]. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.drpribut.com\/sports\/spshoe.html<\/p>\n

17. Tweney, D. (2009, July 10). To run better, start by ditching your Nikes.
\nWired Science. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.wired.com\/wiredscience\/2009\/07\/barefoot\/<\/p>\n

18. Walker, C. & Blair, R. (2001). An experimental review of the McMahon\/Cheng
\nmodel of running. Sports Engineering. 4, 113-121.<\/p>\n

19. Wilk, B.R, Nau, S, & DeLeon, D.A. (2007). The Nike Free as a useful
\ntool for video gait analysis. American Medical Athletic Association, 17.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Danielle (Perkins) Holsomback & Kayla Peak<\/div>\n

ABSTRACT<\/h3>\n

The popularity of the barefoot movement in sports and fitness activities has soared within the past few years as evidenced by a growing community of minimalist footwear enthusiasts wearing the ‘glove’ shoes in their sporting endeavors, fitness workouts, and everyday leisure activities. This emergence of the minimalist shoes, such as the Nike Free© and Vibram FiveFingers®, has created a wave of intrigue for those sport and fitness enthusiasts wanting a natural running experience without being subjected to the hazards of the road. Whether running barefoot, in shoes or in minimal footwear, the trends in footwear preference have caused much debate between researchers as to which form causes more injuries and\/or best serves to enhance athletic performance. As sport and fitness professionals, it is important to thoroughly examine the current footwear trends to develop a ‘best practices’ approach for advising our athletes and clients. <\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_is_tweetstorm":false,"jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_options":[]},"categories":[290,292],"tags":[153,184,297,183,298,154,182],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/p4btio-7C","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":6314,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/biomechanical-comparison-of-dead-and-new-pointe-shoes-in-female-professional-ballet-dancers\/","url_meta":{"origin":472,"position":0},"title":"Biomechanical Comparison of \u201cDead\u201d and \u201cNew\u201d Pointe Shoes in Female Professional Ballet Dancers","date":"February 14, 2019","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: Jessica Aquino, MS and Tal Amasay, PhD Corresponding Author: Tal Amasay, PhD, CSCS, EPC11300 NE 2nd AveMiami Shores, FL 33161tamasay@barry.edu305-899-4893 Jessica Aquino has a master degree in movement sciences, is a certified athletic trainer, and work with professional Ballet dancers. Tal Amasay is associate professor at Barry University and\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Research"","img":{"alt_text":"Table 1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/02\/Table-1.png?resize=350%2C200&ssl=1","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":2422,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/the-effect-of-gender-on-korean-teens-athletic-footwear-purchasing-2\/","url_meta":{"origin":472,"position":1},"title":"The Effect of Gender on Korean Teens\u2019 Athletic Footwear Purchasing","date":"January 3, 2006","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by Dr. Taeho Yon*1, Mr. Brian Gordon*2, and Mr. Mike Mohr*3. *1 Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA *2 Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA *3 Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA Dr. Taeho Yon is an assistant professor in the Department of Physical Education at\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"Yon Gordon Mohr Table 1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2006\/01\/Yon-Gordon-Mohr-Table-1-300x174.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":405,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/factors-that-influence-african-american-millennials-to-purchase-athletic-shoes\/","url_meta":{"origin":472,"position":2},"title":"Factors that Influence African-American Millennials to Purchase Athletic Shoes","date":"January 25, 2011","format":false,"excerpt":"Dr. Robert Lyons Jr., Johnson C. Smith University; Dr. E. Newton Jackson Jr., University of North Florida; Dr. Annette Singleton-Jackson, Florida A & M University ### Abstract The purpose of the study was to determine which factors greatly influenced African-American millennials to purchase athletic shoes. A sample of (n=101) African-American\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":134,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/do-it-yourself-investing-in-sport-related-firms\/","url_meta":{"origin":472,"position":3},"title":"Do-It-Yourself Investing in Sport-Related Firms","date":"February 15, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Mark Mitchell, D.B.A., Associate Professor of Marketing at the Univ. of South Carolina Spartanburg; Robert Montgomery,D.B.A., Associate Professor of Marketing at the University of Evansville; Sheila Mitchell, CPA, MPAcc, Instructor of Accounting at the Univ. of South Carolina Spartanburg Introduction The American culture is a sports-oriented culture. Sports\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":6776,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/the-role-of-organized-youth-sports-in-reducing-trends-in-childhood-obesity\/","url_meta":{"origin":472,"position":4},"title":"The Role of Organized Youth Sports in Reducing Trends in Childhood Obesity","date":"December 27, 2019","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: Alysia Cohen, Heidi Wegis, Darren Dutto, Viktor Bovbjerg Corresponding Author:Alysia Cohen, PhD, ATC, CSCS1435 Village DriveOgden, UT 84408alysiacohen@weber.edu801-626-7115 Alysia Cohen is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Athletic Training at Weber State University. The Role of Organized Youth Sports in Reducing Trends in Childhood Obesity Abstract Purpose: To\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Research"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":321,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/trends-in-collegiate-recreational-sports-facilities\/","url_meta":{"origin":472,"position":5},"title":"Trends in Collegiate Recreational Sports Facilities","date":"October 7, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Craig T. Bogar - United States Sports Academy Abstract This paper discusses trends in the construction and design of recreational sports facilities. Beginning in 1928, the Intramural Sports Building on the campus of the University of Michigan set the stage as a facility that was dedicated solely to\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]}],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/472"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=472"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/472\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":543,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/472\/revisions\/543"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=472"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=472"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=472"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}