{"id":2858,"date":"2015-07-15T14:37:51","date_gmt":"2015-07-15T19:37:51","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/?p=2858"},"modified":"2015-07-16T13:25:18","modified_gmt":"2015-07-16T18:25:18","slug":"how-mindfulness-training-may-mediate-stress-performance-and-burnout","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/how-mindfulness-training-may-mediate-stress-performance-and-burnout\/","title":{"rendered":"How Mindfulness Training may mediate Stress, Performance and Burnout"},"content":{"rendered":"

Submitted by \u00a0P. Furrer1*,\u00a0<\/span>Dr.\u00a0F. Moen2*, \u00a0and. Dr. K. Firing3*<\/p>\n

1* Master student; Faculty of Teacher Education; The Nord-Tr\u00f8ndelag University College; Levanger, Norway<\/p>\n

2* Associate Professor; Department of Education; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim, Norway<\/p>\n

3*Associate Professor; Department of Leadership; The Royal Norwegian Air Force Academy; Trondheim, Norway<\/p>\n

Frode Moen is currently the head manager of the Olympic Athlete program in central Norway, where he also has a position as a coach \/ mental trainer for elite athletes and coaches. \u00a0He also is an associate professor at the Department of Education at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. \u00a0He previously has worked as a teacher in high school where sport was his major subject, and he has been a coach for the national team in Nordic combined in Norway for several years. \u00a0Frode received his Ph.D. \u00a0in coaching and performance psychology from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. \u00a0His research focuses mainly on coaching in business, coaching in sport, communication, performance psychology and relationship issues.<\/p>\n

ABSTRACT<\/strong><\/p>\n

The aim of this article was to explore the influence of mindfulness training on stress, perceived performance in school and sports, and athlete burnout among junior elite athletes. \u00a0One goal was to determine the usefulness of mindfulness training in performance enhancement and burnout prevention in junior elite sports. \u00a0A mindfulness-training program (MTP) was conducted with 29 junior elite athletes over a period of 12-weeks. \u00a0Six of the athletes who were participating in the MTP were randomly chosen to voluntarily participate in a semi structural interview that explored possible effects from the MTP. \u00a0Our qualitative analyses showed that the mindfulness intervention had a positive impact on the athletes\u2019 awareness and recovery. \u00a0The authors also discuss positive effects on the athletes\u2019 focus and performances. \u00a0The findings are discussed against the usefulness of mindfulness training in athlete burnout prevention.<\/p>\n

Key words:\u00a0<\/strong>mindfulness, stress, athlete burnout, sport<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

INTRODUCTION<\/strong><\/p>\n

Junior elite athletes often dream about a future in elite senior sports. \u00a0The path towards elite sports consists of a wide range of challenges that can contribute to performance impairment, negative overload and eventually burnout (3). \u00a0High degrees of stress have an impact on an athlete\u2019s ability for training adaption and performance (19). \u00a0This in turn decreases their ability to reach elite levels in their sports. \u00a0Possibly unfulfilled expectations within sports are also found to influence higher levels of stress (24, 20). \u00a0Junior elite athletes are in a sensitive age for their athletic development (67). \u00a0Athlete burnout is therefore especially problematic in junior sports and can be seen as a possible antecedent for early drop out from sports (47). \u00a0Research to help prevent junior athletes from getting burned out is therefore of high importance. \u00a0Due to the multidimensional nature of athlete burnouts and because of the contributing influence of stress on burnout syndromes (26, 53), stress management and stress reducing training could be an interesting part of burnout prevention.<\/p>\n

One widely used intervention method in stress reduction is mindfulness training (2). \u00a0In addition to the stress reducing effect of mindfulness training (22), mindfulness is also found to be negatively associated to burnout (44). \u00a0Research on neural correlates of mindfulness and clinical sports psychology has further shown that mindfulness can be useful in a wide range of performance enhancement cases like performance development, performance dysfunction, performance impairment, and performance termination (42). \u00a0This study seeks to explore if mindfulness training can be useful in stress reduction, performance enhancement and burnout prevention in junior elite athletes.<\/p>\n

THEORETICAL\u00a0FRAMEWORK<\/strong><\/p>\n

To reach an international level in elite sports requires training spans of 10 years or more with high quality training volumes (16, 62). \u00a0The main purpose in all these years of elite training is to enhance performance level by adapting the physiology and mind to the specific requirements of the sport by using an optimal training load (49). \u00a0Higher degree of adaptation to the training process increases the potential for performance enhancements (4). \u00a0\u201cFlow\u201d is described as a state in which a person is completely absorbed in his or her actions and experiences a unity of body and mind that facilitates peak performance (14, 15, 27, 28, 59). \u00a0Thus, the idea that mindfulness may improve athletic performance is supported by the theoretical overlap between mindfulness and \u201cflow\u201d (66, 17, 35, 36).<\/p>\n

Mindfulness<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Marks (42) suggested mindfulness practice to be relevant for athletes in cases of performance development, performance dysfunction, performance impairment, and performance termination. \u00a0Mindfulness is described as paying attention on purpose in the present moment without judgment (34). \u00a0It is also described as a non-evaluative, receptive moment-to-moment attention or awareness with three principal components – non-evaluation (non-judgment), open receptivity and present-centeredness (5). \u00a0According to Weinstein and Ryan (69) these three components together characterize the mindful-awareness state and are believed to work together in producing beneficial outcomes. \u00a0A tendency towards open-mindedness and curious introspection has also been shown to be integral in this beneficial process (43, 64).<\/p>\n

Several mindfulness programs as for example Kabat-Zinn\u2019s (31, 32) Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR<\/em>) or Segal, Williams, and Teasdale\u2019s (59) Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT<\/em>) have been developed. \u00a0The first one (MBSR by 43, 70) is probably the most well-known of numerous mindfulness based interventions (66). \u00a0This program is a group-based mindfulness intervention originally designed as an adjunct treatment for patients with chronic pain (37). \u00a0The program consists of an eight-to-ten weeks course, in which groups of up to thirty participants meet twice a week for two and a half hours for mindfulness meditation training and instruction (32). \u00a0In addition to mindfulness exercises in class, participants are asked to engage in home mindfulness practices and attend an all-day intensive mindfulness meditation retreat. \u00a0The assumption of MBSR is that individuals learn to be less reactive and judgmental toward their experiences, and more able to recognize and break free from habitual and maladaptive patterns of thinking and behavior (37).<\/p>\n

Stress <\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Importantly, an optimal adaptation to training and competitions depends on the relationship between stress (physiological, psychological and social stress) and adequate regeneration (45, 46). \u00a0Chronic stress and maladaptation to stress over time can lead towards the impairment of training adaptation, the risk of underperformance, the development of overtraining syndrome, and ultimately athlete burnout (12, 23, 57). \u00a0Therefore, it is of high importance that athletes and coaches consider these non-training stressors in combination with the training load (24).<\/p>\n

Interestingly, mindfulness-based interventions are found to reduce stress symptoms (2, 21) and it is found that mindfulness is negatively associated with burnout (44). \u00a0It has also been found that the practice of mindfulness can help improve wellbeing (5, 6), physical health (21), as well as to reduce pain, anxiety, and depression (33, 65).<\/p>\n

Performance <\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

An explanation of all the presented positive effects from the mindfulness programs could be that mindfulness practice provides an opportunity to enhance concentration and non-reactivity. \u00a0The emotional experience of stressful events is not denied during the practice, but acknowledged and accepted, while maintaining task-focus. \u00a0Enhancement of continues attention reduces rumination and facilitates shift of attention focus to desired targets and impede thereby elaboration of unpleasant thoughts and feelings (42). \u00a0This explanation fits well with the suggestions of Weinstein, Brown & Ryan (68) about two primary ways through which mindfulness training may produce beneficial effects. \u00a0Firstly, mindfulness practice may promote a less defensive, more willing exposure to challenging and threatening events and experiences. \u00a0This may reduce negative cognitive appraisals of those situations, thus leading to lower levels of perceived stress. \u00a0Secondly, mindfulness training may foster an enhanced capacity to cope adaptively with situations, which are perceived as challenging, threatening, or harmful (68). \u00a0They hypothesized that higher levels of mindfulness would be related to both, a lower tendency to appraise or interpret events as stressful and a more adaptive coping in stressful situations (68).<\/p>\n

Athlete Burnout<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Athlete burnout is a difficult and chronic state and it is demanding to recover from it (61). \u00a0However, chronic stress from various sources seems to be the most important antecedent for athlete burnout (53, 58). \u00a0Psychosocial factors (13), excessive training stress and lack of recovery (20, 22, 40), sport hassles (12), or perceived performance pressure from coaches (51) are only some of a wide range of stressors, which can contribute to the development of athlete burnout.<\/p>\n

Athlete burnout is considered to be a multidimensional syndrome or construct (55, 8), which consists of three central dimensions: 1) Emotional and physical exhaustion<\/em>, 2) Reduced sense of accomplishment<\/em>, and 3) Sport devaluation <\/em>(52). \u00a0Emotional and physical exhaustion seem to be the most obvious manifestation of burnout and are characterized by feelings of emotional and physical fatigue associated with training and competing (55). \u00a0Reduced sense of accomplishment is explained by perceived inefficacy and a tendency to negative evaluations of oneself, in terms of sports performance and own accomplishments. \u00a0Athletes, who experience this phenomenon, perform below expectations and are unable to achieve personal goals (55). \u00a0Sport devaluation is defined as a detached attitude towards the sport, reflected by negativity and a lack of concern regarding the sport itself and the performance quality (55). \u00a0The most common consequence of high levels of burnout is lack of motivation (18), which may lead to the unwanted outcome of dropout from sports (47). \u00a0Although the occurrence of athlete burnout still is not fully understood (29), it is suggested that the number of athletes, who are suffering from burnout, seems to be rising (19).<\/p>\n

Because of the strong research support on the influence of from meditation on stress, performance and burnout syndromes (3, 25, 53, 54), mindfulness training should be seen as an interesting tool in stress management, performance enhancement and recovery (48).<\/p>\n

Based on the presented theoretical background this study aims to investigate the influence of a 12-weeks mindfulness intervention on perceived stress, perceived performance in school and sports, and especially athlete burnout among junior elite athletes.<\/p>\n

METHOD<\/strong><\/p>\n

In order to reach a deeper understanding of the influence and the mechanisms of mindfulness training in performance enhancement and burnout prevention in junior elite sports, a mindfulness training program was developed and offered to junior athletes in Norway. \u00a0Twenty-nine Norwegian junior athletes from biathlon, cross-country skiing and shooting were asked to voluntarily take part in a 12-weeks mindfulness training intervention. \u00a0Their average age were 18 \u00bd years and they all studied at a Norwegian high school specialized for elite sport. \u00a0These athletes were all in an elite training group in their different sports and were considered to be the best athletes in their sports. \u00a0The athletes\u2019 experiences from the mindfulness program were investigated qualitatively by semi-structured interviews. \u00a0The study is approved by the Norwegian Social Science Data Services.<\/p>\n

Mindfulness program<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

The mindfulness intervention lasted 12 weeks in total, divided into 4 continuous periods of three weeks. \u00a0After each of these periods athletes, who agreed to take part in this intervention, were invited to a 2-hour mindfulness-class conducted by an experienced mindfulness coach. \u00a0There, the training was discussed, the planning for the next period was made and mindfulness was trained. \u00a0The mindfulness-intervention program consisted mainly of 2 different types of mindfulness training: a) sitting meditation with focus on breathing and b) body scanning (laying and standing position) with help of sound files in different length varying from 10-30 minutes. \u00a0All participants received the audio files used in this intervention before the start of the first period. \u00a0The mindfulness training-periods differed in content, volume and intensity (Table 1).<\/p>\n

Throughout the whole intervention, participants were asked to write a personal mindfulness training-diary, including type of training, training-volume, and personal thoughts and findings linked to the program to assure the program followed up as good as possible. \u00a0These diaries were used to improve the follow-up of the athletes during the program. \u00a0Additionally, the mindfulness classes every 3th week were observed by the author to secure the program-content and to gain deeper understanding of the influence of the intervention throughout the program. \u00a0These observations helped also to gain wider understanding of athletes\u2019 thoughts about the program and their follow up during the periods.<\/p>\n

Table 1<\/strong><\/p>\n

Overview of the 12-week mindfulness-intervention divided into 4 periods of 3 weeks.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Period<\/strong><\/td>\nTraining plan<\/strong><\/td>\nGoal<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u00a0<\/strong>1<\/strong><\/td>\nMinimum 5 times weekly;
\n<\/strong>Mornings:<\/strong>\u00a0Body-scanning (13 minute audio-file).
\nEvenings:<\/strong>\u00a0\u00a0Meditation in sitting position with focus on breathing (10 minute sound file).<\/td>\n		To train on keeping concentration and focus over longer periods of time in a relaxed way.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
2<\/strong><\/td>\nMinimum 3 times weekly;
\n<\/strong>Mornings:<\/strong>\u00a03-5 minute mix of meditation-body-scanning with focus on whole body in sitting or lying-position (without use of audio-file).
\nEvenings:\u00a0<\/strong>Body-scanning\u00a0 (30 min audio-file).<\/td>\n		To get used to meditate individually without use of guiding or audio-files.To train the change of direction and intensity of focus.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
3<\/strong><\/td>\nMonday:\u00a0<\/strong>Body-scanning in laying position(30 min audio-file)
\nTuesday:\u00a0<\/strong>meditation in sitting position with focus on breathing (6 min).
\nWednesday<\/strong>: body scanning, (13 min audio-file).
\nThursday:<\/strong>\u00a0meditation in sitting position with focus on breathing (6 min).
\nFriday:<\/strong>\u00a0Body-scanning in laying position(30 min audio-file)
\nSaturday:\u00a0<\/strong>no mindfulness training
\nSunday:\u00a0<\/strong>no mindfulness Training<\/td>\n		To train the different mindfulness skills.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u00a0<\/strong>4<\/strong><\/td>\nAthletes were guided to make individual mindfulness training plans. The minimum weekly training volume was 90 minutes of self-chosen meditations.
\nIn combination with this period\u2019s training plan on formal meditation the athletes were asked to train non-formal meditation.<\/td>\n		To maintain reached level of mindfulness and to learn participants to plan and train mindfulness individually.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Qualitatively Interviews<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

After finishing the Mindfulness program, 6 athletes were selected semi-randomly to take part in qualitative semi-structured interviews. \u00a0This ensured that all the important topics were explored, while flexibility in individual responses was still allowed. \u00a0The sample consisted of 3 female and 3 male athletes, who ranged in age from 18 to 20 years (2 biathletes, 2 cross-country skiers, 2 shooters).\u00a0 In-depth interviews were chosen because they can provide greater breadth and allowed the athletes to articulate their own thoughts and feelings about the mindfulness training intervention (17).<\/p>\n

We wanted to stimulate a production of storied communication, meaning extensive elaborations of a topic and how these topics influenced their lives as athletes. \u00a0All stories were spontaneous and the episodes spread throughout the interview were considered narratives and later given a meaning analysis (39). \u00a0The interview guide consisted of five main sections. \u00a0The interviews started with: (a) demographic background; (b); an open question about how they experienced the intervention; (c) the athletes experience with the present during the period (mindfulness); (d) their perceived stress and amount of exhaustion; and (e) their performances in sport and in school. \u00a0The participants were encouraged to express their views as fully and freely as they possibly could, both prior to and during the interview. \u00a0The interviewer was flexible to change the order of questions and probe areas that arose to follow the participants\u2019 perspectives. \u00a0Probes and follow-up questions were also used to deepen the responses. The interviews (ranging from 35-60 minutes) were recorded and transcribed (88 pages).<\/p>\n

Data analysis procedures<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

The interview transcripts were analyzed through Interpretive Phenomenological Analyses (IPA), a process conducted through six steps (62). \u00a0First, the transcripts were read to ensure the focus of the participant involved. Second, initial coding, attaching one or more code words to the text paragraphs of relevance, was conducted to identify what mattered most to the participant (e.g. how the mindfulness training had enhanced the athletes\u2019 ability to recover). \u00a0In this stage we stayed close to the participants\u2019 meaning in a descriptive way. \u00a0Third, to develop emergent themes, we reduced the volume of transcripts and initial codes. \u00a0Fourth, using a table with relevant utterances in one column and code words in another, we developed clusters of meaning bringing significant statements into themes (e.g. how different utterances considering \u201csleep\u201d and \u201ccalmer\u201d were developed into the theme \u201crecovery as it was experienced during the mindfulness training). \u00a0In the fifth step, the four first steps were repeated for all informants. \u00a0Through the sixth step, bringing different tables with relevant utterances and code words together, we developed common patterns across the different interviews, a process of gathering information about the same theme within its respective category (e.g. how the athletes\u2019 awareness had been developed through the mindfulness training). \u00a0In our case, four categories were developed.<\/p>\n

Trustworthiness<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

In accordance with Lincoln and Guba\u2019s (41) criteria for trustworthiness, we spent prolonged time in the field to build trust with the participants. \u00a0Furthermore, we used analysis triangulation to help establish accuracy in the interpretations (50). \u00a0All participants were sent copies of their individual interview transcripts, and were asked to comment on the accuracy of the preliminary analyses. \u00a0Second, following data analysis, they were sent a summary of the study findings and asked to comment on the degree to which the analyses were concordant with their own interpretations. \u00a0Some of the athletes clarified some details during this process. \u00a0Finally, a thick description of the context and other aspects of the research setting were made to provide evidence for transferability.<\/p>\n

RESULTS<\/strong><\/p>\n

In examining how the junior athletes experienced the attention training we developed the categories raised awareness, improved recovery, improved focus <\/em>and improved performances<\/em>, as outlined below.<\/p>\n

Raised awareness<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Investigating the effects of the mindfulness training intervention qualitatively, the influence on awarenessis prominent. \u00a0All six athletes described their experience of raised awareness.<\/p>\n

(1)\u00a0\u00a0 <\/em>I feel I have an improved awareness now\u2026 I discover more\u2026 I discover easier when my focus drifts away and then I\u2019m able to refocus on what matters in the present moment (Athlete 3). <\/em><\/p>\n

(2)\u00a0\u00a0 <\/em>I feel I have an improved awareness for inner experiences now, such as nervousness. I don\u00b4t feel that it creates any stress; on the contrary, I feel I am calmer because of that (Athlete 4). <\/em><\/p>\n

(3)\u00a0\u00a0 <\/em>I am more aware of things than before\u2026 and my evaluations have improved because of that (Athlete 1). <\/em><\/p>\n

(4)\u00a0\u00a0 <\/em>I am more aware of my technique in skiing and how different solutions feel when I try these different technical solutions (Athlete 5). <\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/em>The first quotation illustrates how the programme has helped the athlete to become more aware of his attention. \u00a0As a result from raised awareness this athlete is able to reallocates his attention when it \u201c\u2026drifts away\u201d. \u00a0In the second utterance we see how the athlete has increased his \u201c\u2026awareness for inner experiences now, such as nervousness\u201d, which makes him calmer. \u00a0In the third utterance raised awareness has resulted in improved evaluations. \u00a0The fourth utterance illustrates how raised awareness makes the athlete become more aware of how she performs different techniques when skiing.<\/p>\n

Although improvements in awareness generally were mentioned as something positive, it also seems to have the potential of causing higher rumination.<\/p>\n

(5)\u00a0\u00a0 I somehow feel like being more aware of my inner experiences\u2026 In the mornings I can for example make a body scanning and feel immediately what state the body is in\u2026 if I feel my body is very tired, that can stress me a little bit\u2026 It somehow lies there all the time and I ruminate about it (Athlete 3). <\/em><\/p>\n

This utterance illustrates that being aware of unwanted feelings \u201c\u2026if my body is very tired\u2026\u201d can stimulate the athlete to start ruminating about it.<\/p>\n

Improved focus<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

All six athletes also mentioned changes in their focus abilities as a result from the mindfulness intervention.<\/p>\n

(1)\u00a0\u00a0 I`m able to keep concentration on more shots for example (Athlete 1). <\/em><\/p>\n

(2)\u00a0\u00a0 Earlier my focus easily drifted away, now it\u00b4s much easier to just keep the focus on the things that matters, as e.g. in shooting… If I`ve e.g. plan to focus on the way I pull the trigger, the focus on this task is much clearer and stronger (Athlete 2). <\/em><\/p>\n

(3)\u00a0\u00a0 I am just much more focused\u2026 for example if I am reading school things I am much more focused on what I am actually reading\u2026 it\u00b4s easier to remember things I read and I get things done in shorter time\u2026 It\u00b4s easier to pay attention to- and listen to the teacher. \u00a0When I am working in the class I don\u00b4t get distracted by others (Athlete 4). <\/em><\/p>\n

(4)\u00a0\u00a0 I now had some races where my shooting was crazy \u2026 \u00a0I was 100% focused on myself and every single shot\u2026 \u00a0I was only present in this one moment without thinking on possible outcomes\u2026 \u00a0I was extremely determined and had a big self-confidence\u2026 \u00a0I have never been like this before (Athlete 6). <\/em><\/p>\n

The first quotation illustrates how the programme has helped the athlete to stay focused \u201c\u2026keep concentration on more shots for example\u2026\u201d In the second utterance also illustrates improved focus \u201c\u2026the focus on this task is much clearer and stronger. In the third utterance we see how improved focus at school \u201c\u2026 I am much more focused on what I am actually reading\u2026\u201d, and as a result \u201c\u2026 it\u2019s easier to remember things I read \u2026\u201d The fourth utterance illustrates how the athlete has improved his ability to just focus on his shooting \u201c\u2026 I was 100% focused on myself and every single shot\u2026\u201d without any rumination about possible outcomes \u201c \u2026without thinking on possible outcomes\u2026\u201d Interestingly, this experience is his first \u201c\u2026I have never been like this before\u2026\u201d<\/p>\n

One athlete expressed that higher awareness in combination with a too poorly defined focus task in a performance situation could cause insecurity, stress and rumination.<\/p>\n

(5)\u00a0\u00a0 I got more aware of things now, but in shooting it feels like I haven\u00b4t found the key yet\u2026 \u00a0and when I shoot badly I suddenly can lose my self-confidence in shooting\u2026 \u00a0So in shooting I still struggle to accept and refocus (Athlete 3). <\/em><\/p>\n

This utterance illustrates how a poorly defined focus task could be a potential stressor in competition situations. \u00a0This athlete struggled with insecurity about what to focus on to perform well, while he was aware about doing this. Such cases seem to have the potential to cause more rumination.<\/p>\n

Improved recovery<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Besides the positive influence of mindfulness training on changes in awareness, change in recovery (as mentioned by all athletes) seems to be another positive outcome of this training intervention.<\/p>\n

(1)\u00a0\u00a0 <\/em>I feel a big difference in sleep. I fall asleep much easier. Earlier I struggled with falling asleep and I lay awake for a long time, ruminating about a lot of things\u2026 \u00a0\u00a0Now I don`t ruminate that much anymore, so it takes like 5 minutes and then I fall asleep\u2026 \u00a0that`s strange\u2026 \u00a0but feels very good (Athlete 1). <\/em><\/p>\n

(2)\u00a0\u00a0 <\/em>I felt the improved sleeping quality had an effect on how recovered I felt in the mornings\u2026 \u00a0I could get up earlier and I was less tired\u2026\u00a0 That\u00b4s really good (Athlete 2). <\/em><\/p>\n

(3)\u00a0\u00a0 <\/em>I slept better\u2026 \u00a0and feel I wake up more recovered\u2026 \u00a0maybe that\u00b4s because I don\u2019t think so much anymore when I go to bed (Athlete 3). <\/em><\/p>\n

(4)\u00a0\u00a0 <\/em>I feel that I relate a little different to my expectations now than I did before\u2026 \u00a0I don\u2019t put that much pressure on myself as before\u2026 \u00a0I focus more on myself than on my opponents and therefore I feel less stressed\u2026 \u00a0somehow I have become calmer and less anxious in according to my sports performance (Athlete 5). <\/em><\/p>\n

The first quotation illustrates how the programme has helped the athlete to sleep better, possibly because \u201c\u2026\u00a0 I don\u2019t think so much anymore when I go to bed\u2026\u201d\u00a0 In the second utterance we see how the athlete has increased his \u201c\u2026 awareness for inner experiences now, such as nervousness\u201d, which makes him calmer. \u00a0In the third utterance raised awareness has resulted in improved evaluations. \u00a0The fourth utterance illustrates how raised awareness makes the athlete become more aware of how she performs different techniques when skiing. \u00a0Interestingly, all four utterances indicate that the main effect on recovery seems to be rooted in less rumination, which then leads to improved sleep and relaxation.<\/p>\n

Although all athletes expressed improved recovery, some of the athletes still experienced stress due to the combination of school, sports and eventually also the mindfulness-training program.<\/p>\n

(5)\u00a0\u00a0 I felt I was very low in energy levels true big parts of the season\u2026 \u00a0Because I succeeded well in sports, I had very high expectations to myself in both sports and school, and I also felt high expectations from other people\u2026 \u00a0During this period I also felt that the mindfulness program was intensive. \u00a0However, I felt I had more energy thanks to the mindfulness training (Athlete 5). <\/em><\/p>\n

This quotation illustrates that the athlete experienced a high amount of exhaustion during the season. \u00a0Still, the athlete believed that the mindfulness training had helped her to prevent even higher degrees of exhaustion, even though the mindfulness training was demanding itself.<\/p>\n

Improved performances<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

The last category represents the athletes\u2019 experiences of better performances in both school and sports. \u00a0Influences on performance have already been touched in the previous categories, but are presented more specific in this category.<\/p>\n

(1)\u00a0\u00a0 I feel that the program has helped me to perform better in shooting, my results are better now. \u00a0I think that`s because of the improved quality of the training sessions, in combination with my improved skills of being focused on just the one thing that matters at a particular moment (Athlete 1).\u00a0 <\/em><\/p>\n

(2)\u00a0\u00a0 The improved ability of focusing has generally had a very positive effect on my school performance\u2026 \u00a0Since I my awareness in school is higher and since it\u2019s easier to focus and work well, my grades have improved\u2026 \u00a0It\u00b4s also easier to get interested and stay interested on what s going on at school (Athlete 2). <\/em><\/p>\n

(3)\u00a0\u00a0 I feel being part of this program also paid off in school performance\u2026 \u00a0If you work more focused, off course, it helps\u2026 \u00a0I think I am better at school now than I was before\u2026 \u00a0We didn\u00b4t so many exams in this period, but I feel that all exams that we did have went pretty well (Athlete 4). <\/em><\/p>\n

The first quotation illustrates a positive effect on shooting performance \u201c\u2026 I feel the results are better now\u2026\u201d The second and third utterances illustrates that the athletes believe that their school performances are improved \u201c\u2026 positive effect on my school performance\u2026\u201d and \u201c\u2026 I think I\u2019m better in school now than I was before\u2026\u201d The perceived positive changes in both, school and sports performances seem to be mostly because of the improved attention awareness \u201c\u2026 If you work more focused, off course it helps\u2026\u201d<\/p>\n

DISCUSSION<\/strong><\/p>\n

This study explored the influence of mindfulness training on stress, performance in school and sports, and athlete burnout. \u00a0The existing literature has a lack of clarity concerning the link between mindfulness training and stress, performance and athlete burnout, and therefore we chose to explore the link between mindfulness training and burnout prevention and performance enhancement among junior elite athletes. \u00a0Some of the major findings that emerged are given below.<\/p>\n

\u201cRaised awareness\u201d includes how the athletes have become more aware of the situation, and have been more able to relocate their attention. \u00a0\u201cImproved\u201d focus is captured by athletes having a clearer and stronger focus, being able to focus on what they are doing without thinking of possible consequences. \u00a0\u201cImproved recovery\u201d encompasses how the athletes have reported less rumination and increased sleep and relaxation. \u00a0Finally, \u201cimproved performance\u201d is reported through improved results in sport, in shooting, and in school, on exams.<\/p>\n

Researchers seem to reach different conclusions as to the efficacy of mindfulness training, depending on the theoretical framework and the methods used for investigation. \u00a0Our study takes a step forward to explore the experience resulting from mindfulness training. \u00a0In the following, the opportunities and constraints regarding mindfulness training will be discussed.<\/p>\n

Mindfulness training: Adding weight or improving recovery?<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Our findings indicate that mindfulness training leads to lower perceived mind stress, lower rumination, improved sleeping quality and better recovery. \u00a0However, several of these athletes experienced high total loads due to the combination of school and sports. \u00a0Several of the athletes also reported they had a period where they struggled with the motivation to train mindfulness. \u00a0From here, the experience was twofold.<\/p>\n

First, the athletes who mentioned these kinds of struggles with motivation during the program reported they restarted with mindfulness training after a short break. \u00a0This was because they felt things had worked better in periods where they trained mindfulness. \u00a0This may indicate that mental training methods, such as mindfulness training, have to be maintained. \u00a0Otherwise the positive effects could decrease.<\/p>\n

Second, the mentioned periods with a lack of motivation could also be viewed in the light of junior elite athletes\u2019 schedules, already having fully programmed days with academic and sport-related activities. \u00a0If a mental training intervention takes too much space, it could cause more stress and thereby the beneficial effects could be weakened or entirely lost. \u00a0It seems important that a mindfulness-training program is not too extensive, and is properly adjusted into the athletes\u2019 existing training programs. \u00a0Thus, finding a balance between the mindfulness training itself and the athletes\u2019 total load seems to be important in making mindfulness training improve recovery rather than adding extra weight an already heavy load. \u00a0A possible difficulty regarding this balance, however, is illustrated by the words of St Francis de Seles: \u201cA half-hour daily meditation is a must – except when you are very busy. \u00a0Then you need an hour\u201d (32).<\/p>\n

Mindfulness training: improved awareness or more rumination?<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Another highly important and often perceived outcome of the conducted mindfulness intervention seems to be the effect of athletes\u2019 improved awareness. \u00a0This corresponds very well with the findings of De Petrillo et al. \u00a0(15), who showed significant increases in the awareness in runners taking part in a Mindful Sports Performance Enhancement intervention (MSPE).<\/p>\n

Although it seems that improved awareness offers several beneficial outcomes, it may also lead to more rumination, insecurity and mind stress. \u00a0This is especially the case if athletes become aware of no beneficial feelings, which they do not know how to handle or if work- or focus-tasks are not defined clearly enough. \u00a0Improved acceptance of stressful experiences was also reported by Kabat-Zinn et al., (33).<\/p>\n

Mindfulness training: increased internal focus or lack of external focus?<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Our findings also indicate that during mindfulness training the athletes had improved their focus abilities and all explained that they had increased the duration of time in which they could keep a strong focus. \u00a0Therefore, it seems that the meditation training improves athletes\u2019 endurance in keeping a high level of attention and focus on specific tasks. \u00a0Although athletes mentioned they are better at focusing, there seem to be differences in how clearly they could e.g. explain what their focus was like when performing at their best. \u00a0Therefore it is hypothesized that it is rather the change in awareness of their own experiences rather than the focus abilities, which has changed. \u00a0It has to be considered that barely defined focus tasks in combination with higher awareness of one\u2019s own internal experiences, could lead to higher insecurity; creating more stress and rumination. \u00a0Also, if the internal focus abilities are trained extensively through mindfulness meditation, there could be a lack of external focusing skills resulting in little clarity of one\u2019s own focus tasks. \u00a0To improve both, internal and external focus, it could be useful to combine mental training methods such as mindfulness training (internal focus), with training methods focusing on improvement of external focus, such as attention training techniques (71).<\/p>\n

Mindfulness training: happening or integrated trough follow up processes? <\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

Against our findings related to the mindfulness-training program, it is important to keep in mind that the athletes have been followed up over a 12-week period. \u00a0Thus, the findings have to be judged in two directions. First, this follow-up process itself could have caused feelings of positive changes. \u00a0Second, the close follow-up of mental training interventions by a coach seems to be important. \u00a0This is due to positive influences on motivation and a more beneficial adaption of experiences. \u00a0In addition, the analysis of this 12-week intervention shows that it is highly important that a possible mental training intervention, like this mindfulness program, in junior elite athletes should not be too extensive because of their already busy days. \u00a0Too extensive programs could become a possible antecedent of even higher perceived stress levels, which in turn could affect athletes negatively.<\/p>\n

CONCLUSION<\/strong><\/p>\n

Based on this study it can be concluded that mindfulness training is an interesting mental training method, which can possibly be used in both performance enhancement and especially burnout prevention in junior elite athletes; the latter is due to increased stress reduction and recovery. \u00a0Mindfulness training seems to have a positive, but mostly indirect influence on levels of athlete burnout in junior elite athletes through the link of impaired perceived stress. \u00a0Reductions in athletes\u00b4 perceived mind stress seem to lead to lower perceived stress levels, less rumination, better sleep and improved recovery.<\/p>\n

Positive effects of mindfulness training were found in athletes\u2019 awareness abilities (e.g. attention awareness, focus awareness, awareness on what is beneficial and no beneficial, present-oriented awareness). \u00a0It seems that improved awareness is beneficial for enhanced recovery, school and sports performance. \u00a0Higher perceived performance led to higher satisfaction and improved motivation, which also had a positive influence on burnout prevention. \u00a0It seems as the possible positive effects of mindfulness training on school and sports performance also seems to be indirect as for e.g. true improved recovery or improved task awareness.<\/p>\n

Higher awareness in combination with an insufficiently defined focus task can cause insecurity, higher mind stress and rumination in performance situations\/tasks. \u00a0For future use of mindfulness training in performance enhancement, it is, therefore, important that focus tasks are defined as clearly as possible. \u00a0A close cooperation with the sports specific coach could therefore be highly interesting in future mindfulness training interventions in sports.\u00a0 For clarifying focus tasks and thereby minimizing the risk that improved awareness can lead to insecurity in performance situations, it could further be interesting to combine mindfulness training with other mental training programs, which focus more on external focus abilities.<\/p>\n

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT<\/strong><\/p>\n

Mindfulness training has the potential to prevent athlete burnout because of stress reduction and increased recovery. \u00a0It also has the potential to enhance performances. \u00a0Mindfulness exercises could be beneficial for athletes who struggle with demands from several sources.<\/p>\n

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<\/strong><\/p>\n

This study was done in cooperation with The Olympic department in middle-Norway and the Center for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

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     <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

    Submitted by \u00a0P. Furrer1*,\u00a0Dr.\u00a0F. Moen2*, \u00a0and. Dr. K. Firing3* 1* […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_is_tweetstorm":false,"jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_options":[]},"categories":[290],"tags":[613,268,208,612],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/p4btio-K6","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":6142,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/the-working-alliance-and-satisfaction-with-the-coach-athlete-relationship-among-norwegian-elite-swimmers\/","url_meta":{"origin":2858,"position":0},"title":"The Working Alliance and Satisfaction with the Coach-Athlete relationship among Norwegian elite swimmers","date":"November 15, 2018","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: F. Moen(1), R. Anstensen(1), M. Hrozanova(2), T. C. Stiles(3) Corresponding Author: Frode Moen, PhD Department of Education and Lifelong learning, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, N-7491 Trondheim, Norway frode.moen@ntnu.no +47 93 24 87 50 Frode Moen is a mental trainer for elite athletes and coaches at the Norwegian\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Research"","img":{"alt_text":"Table 1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/Table-1-1.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":3914,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/psychological-determinants-of-burnout-illness-and-injury-among-elite-junior-athletes\/","url_meta":{"origin":2858,"position":1},"title":"Psychological Determinants of Burnout, Illness and Injury among Elite Junior Athletes","date":"August 16, 2016","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: F. Moen, K. Myhre and \u00d8. Sandbakk Corresponding Author: Frode Moen E-mail address: frmoe@online.no, Tel. : +47 932 487 50 Postal address: Department of Education, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, N-7491 Trondheim, Norway Frode Moen is currently the head manager of the Olympic Athlete program in central Norway,\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Research"","img":{"alt_text":"Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlations","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/BurnoutTable1-1.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":5036,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/physical-affective-and-psychological-determinants-of-athlete-burnout\/","url_meta":{"origin":2858,"position":2},"title":"Physical, Affective and Psychological determinants of Athlete Burnout","date":"April 27, 2017","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: Frode Moen, Kenneth Myhre, Christian A. Kl\u00f6ckner, Kristin Gausen and \u00d8yvind Sandbakk. 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Haugan2, and Frode Moen1 1 Department of Education and Lifelong Learning, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway2 Department of Teacher Education, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway Correspondence: Frode Moen, PhDDepartment of Education and Lifelong LearningPost box 8900,\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Research"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/04\/Moen-Table-1.jpg?resize=350%2C200&ssl=1","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":5292,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/working-alliance-between-coaches-and-athletes-explain-athlete-burnout\/","url_meta":{"origin":2858,"position":4},"title":"Can the working alliance between coaches and athletes explain athlete burnout among junior athletes?","date":"October 5, 2017","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: Frode Moen(1) and Kenneth Myhre(2). Corresponding Author: 1. E-mail address: frmoe@online.no, Tel.: +47 932 487 50. Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Education and Lifelong Learning, Faculty of Social and Educational Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway. 2. Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Research"","img":{"alt_text":"Figure 1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/10\/Figure1.png?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":2330,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/experiences-from-attention-training-techniques-among-athletes\/","url_meta":{"origin":2858,"position":5},"title":"Experiences from Attention Training Techniques among Athletes","date":"March 13, 2015","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by Frode Moen1, Ph.D*, Kristian\u00a0Firing2. 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