Submission by Dr. John T. Ehrbar1*<\/p>\n
1* Student of doctoral studies in sports management at the United States Sports Academy<\/p>\n
ABSTRACT<\/strong><\/p>\n New technologies are currently being developed that will enable medical professionals to modify genes for medicinal purposes.\u00a0 As the process continues to be refined, the emergence of a controversial new use for this technology has ignited some serious debate.\u00a0 Scientists have submitted that genetic modification could potentially be used as a method of performance enhancement in sport.\u00a0 There are different schools of thought on this type of performance enhancement, and researchers and theorists have argued the advantages and disadvantages of using such a technology.\u00a0 These arguments are discussed in the present review.\u00a0 Though the ethical debate on this matter is in its infancy, a general consensus is that the allowance of genetic modification for the purpose of enhancing performance in sport will most certainly create a new look, along with new concerns, for sport in the future.<\/p>\n Key words:<\/strong> ethics, gene doping, sport, performance, enhancement<\/p>\n INTRODUCTION<\/strong><\/p>\n Technological advancements have improved the world in many ways.\u00a0 Innovative use of technology has opened the door for new avenues of communication, efficient means in which to conduct business, new learning opportunities, and major advancements in the fields of science and medicine.\u00a0 These technological advancements, in many ways, have greatly improved society.\u00a0 With development of any new technology, however, there is always possibility that the technology may be used inappropriately.\u00a0 For this reason, it is crucial to examine ethical issues that may arise as a result of the new technology.\u00a0 In the ongoing pattern of change in today\u2019s world, it is clear that through discovery and development of new technology, society will be capable of many more things in the future, which will lead to ongoing discussions on ethics and morality.<\/p>\n A major technological advancement in recent years is the ability to manipulate genes.\u00a0 Gene therapy, as it is referred to, has been developed with the intent of healing and possibly preventing disease or injury.\u00a0 As technology in this field continues to grow, the possibilities grow with it.\u00a0 For example, gene therapy could potentially be used for performance enhancement in sport. Scientists are learning increasingly more about DNA and genetic make up, and as a result, are starting to identify specific genes that may enhance athletic potential.<\/p>\n Purpose<\/strong><\/p>\n The idea of gene doping or genetic modification as a method of enhancement in sport is very innovative.\u00a0 It is also a very controversial topic, and the worldwide discussion on gene doping is continuing to grow as this technology expands.\u00a0 The idea of creating \u201csuper athletes,\u201d though, is incredibly intriguing.\u00a0\u00a0 Very little research exists on the application of genetic technology for the benefit of sport, but several pieces of research on the theoretical implications of this technology have been published.\u00a0 The research indicates that key ethical considerations need to be examined prior to considering implementation.<\/p>\n The purpose of this review is to focus on the ethical considerations of genetic modification to enhance sport.\u00a0 Specifically, reasons why an individual would want to utilize this type of technology are examined, including normative arguments for and against its use in sport.\u00a0 As technology continues to improve and expand, it is only a matter of time before this futuristic idea of genetic modification becomes a present-day reality. \u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n For clarity purposes, it is important to identify key concepts and terms that are used in research on genetic technology.\u00a0 In sport, doping has traditionally been the term that describes the process of using illegal performance enhancement substances.\u00a0 Most sports governing bodies, as well as the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), have some type of written policy that identifies which substances are not acceptable for the purpose of performance enhancement in sport.\u00a0 Gene doping is a relatively new term that is discussed extensively in the research presented in this review.\u00a0 WADA (17) defines gene doping as \u201cthe non-therapeutic use of cells, genes, genetic elements, or of the modulation of gene expression, having the capacity to enhance athletic performance\u201d (p. 7).<\/p>\n The two types of gene modification that are discussed in the literature are somatic therapy and germ line therapy.\u00a0 Somatic gene modification deals with the treatment or changing of gene cells in an adult (16).\u00a0 The modifications that occur as result of this type of gene therapy are restricted to only the individual and cannot be inherited by any future offspring (4).\u00a0 An example of somatic gene therapy, which is in violation of WADA policy, is the modification of a cell to make it produce more testosterone on a regular basis than it would in its natural state (16).\u00a0 Somatic gene modification is a process that can only be used on existing humans.<\/p>\n The second type of gene modification is more controversial and is known as germ line therapy.\u00a0 The biggest reason for the controversy is because this type of modification is done prior to birth and all manipulations from germ line therapy become hereditary (4, 16).\u00a0 The principal function of germ line modification is to counteract genetic disorder or heredity disease.\u00a0 For example, if a family has a history of heart disorder, it may be possible to use germ line therapy to change the genome of an unborn individual.\u00a0 By doing so, the risk of heart complications later in life can be reduced or even prevented.<\/p>\n In terms of sport, germ line therapy could also be used to alter an embryo with desired genetic characteristics to make it predisposed for physical excellence, thereby creating a so-called \u201csuper athlete.\u201d\u00a0 The majority of the literature presented in this review focuses on the ethics and implications of germ line modification.<\/p>\n REVIEW OF LITERATURE<\/strong><\/p>\n A central theme of the research on genetic engineering is how this advance in technology can be applied for the purpose of sport.\u00a0 The idea of creating and engineering embryos to be future athletes seems like a topic for science fiction literature or television.\u00a0 Amazingly, the technology to do so is currently being developed.\u00a0 However, it would not make much sense to use this technology unless the benefits far outweighed the risks of such a procedure (10).\u00a0 Parents, though, may be willing to take certain risks when it comes to germ line modification to increase the chances of their child becoming a star athlete and subsequently ending up in a financially sound position.\u00a0 Parents who follow this school of thought should note a very important caveat \u2013 the fact that genetics alone do not necessarily lead to athletic success.\u00a0 Other factors such as ambition, diet, willpower, practice, and training are also necessary to be successful in sport (3, 10).\u00a0 In American culture, dreaming big and desiring the best is the norm.\u00a0 With this cultural mindset, the creation of \u201csuper-athletes\u201d is not far-fetched and is a viable reason for people wanting to utilize genetic technology for the purpose of sport.<\/p>\n A very practical, and probably more easily accepted, reason for using genetic technology in sport is to aide injury recovery and prevention.\u00a0 Miah (10) suggested that gene therapy could be used to help athletes recover from injury more effectively and efficiently.\u00a0 Early experimental research, though limited, has provided some supporting evidence, and Cieszczyk et al. (2) agreed that gene therapy will help in treating sport-related injuries such as contusions or trauma.\u00a0 Implementing gene therapy in this manner for sport is more in line with the original intent of the scientific quest to prevent disease and treat illness.<\/p>\n A third potential benefit for genetic modification in sport is to eliminate or significantly reduce gender discrimination in sport.\u00a0 While discrimination will most likely be an ongoing ethical issue, it is an intriguing notion that genetic manipulation could be a step towards finding a solution.\u00a0 The main argument for genetic technology and its potential influence on gender discrimination in sport is that individuals whose genes are engineered for athletic superiority will be able to compete and be evaluated by athletic performance alone, thereby rendering gender a nonfactor (7).\u00a0 Gender, then, would no longer be a differentiator in sport, as genetic engineering would level the playing field.<\/p>\n With the ongoing development of so-called gene doping and cyborg technology, we will perhaps face a future where sports (as we know it) occurs in the purest form; that is, where athletes get evaluated by their athletic performance only and not by their gender and where it becomes impossible to discriminate athletes based on their body constitution and gender identity. (7, p. 259)<\/p>\n This thought is innovative, and with additional experimental research, could be a plausible motivation for using genetic modification techniques for the purpose of advancing sport.<\/p>\n Normative Arguments Against Genetic Modification in Sport<\/strong><\/p>\n Genetic modification in sport has created large scale discussion on ethical implications.\u00a0 Research has been published with normative arguments that are against this relatively new technology.\u00a0 This section has been placed first in this review, as many of the arguments in favor of genetic modification in sport are written to refute the arguments against.<\/p>\n Some arguments to refuse the acceptance of the development of genetic enhancement technology in sport for practical, health, and ethical reasons have been presented.\u00a0 From a practical standpoint, there is not a definite ideal athletic body type (14).\u00a0 For example, ideal boxers are built differently than ideal hurdlers.\u00a0 The fact that ideal body types differ depending on the sport is problematic because germ line modification requires that genetic choices be made prior to birth.\u00a0 Parents would, in effect, have to guess as to what sport the child may be interested in later in life.\u00a0\u00a0 If a child is born with the expectation to be an elite swimmer because he or she was \u201cbuilt that way,\u201d it creates ethical issues regarding that individual\u2019s right to be able to make his or her own choices.\u00a0 In addition, Sherwin (14) warned that genes are not destiny; there are many environmental factors that influence success and failure in sports.\u00a0 Therefore, gene therapy is not a foolproof method that is guaranteed to link directly to athletic success.<\/p>\n Genetic engineering is also a risky procedure when it comes to overall health.\u00a0 Preliminary tests on gene modification have proven to be unpredictable, and there is still a lack of certainty as to how a body would respond to gene therapy (3, 4).\u00a0 In fact, testing in this field has resulted in unfortunate tragedy in some cases.\u00a0 A prime example of this is the case of Jesse Gelsinger, an 18 year old student who was a subject for clinical research on gene therapy.\u00a0 His body did not respond well to the therapy, and as a result he died within 96 hours of the treatment (2).\u00a0 Not all clinical trials have ended in this tragic manner, but safety is still a cause for concern.<\/p>\n Aside from risk and practicality, there are other objections against the use of gene doping or genetic modification in sport.\u00a0 One concern is that the use of this technology could result in unexpected consequences (4).\u00a0 Genetic modification could alter sport as we know it in significant and permanent ways (4).\u00a0 The new class of humans that would result from germ line enhancement would interact with unenhanced humans in sport, thereby creating a potential disadvantage for the unenhanced.\u00a0 This could create a state of inequity and question the fairness of sport, as not all would have access to the technology due to price, availability, or other factors (10).\u00a0 It follows, then, to remain just in sport, different classes would need to be formed, similar to weight classes in boxing or wrestling (7).\u00a0 In this case, the two class choices would be enhanced athletes and unenhanced athletes.\u00a0\u00a0 Whether or not this idea of classes would be accepted is yet to be seen.\u00a0 However, this idea of classes has a major drawback.\u00a0 Creating such classes would detract from the very purpose of gene doping or genetic modification, which is to gain some sort of advantage (10).\u00a0 Fairness is a key subject of ethical discussion in sport, and genetic manipulation for performance enhancement in sport adds a new dimension to the topic.<\/p>\n An additional normative argument against the use of gene doping for sport purposes revolves around the issue of privacy.\u00a0 If genetic modification becomes widespread and acceptable in sport, guidelines regarding privacy of personal information, especially DNA, would need to be established.\u00a0 Genetic engineering requires testing of genes and DNA.\u00a0 The information obtained from this testing would identify \u201call the processes occurring in the body and may be used to estimate the probability of disease, or even to define a certain type of human character\u201d (3, p. 323).\u00a0 Due to the confidential nature of the information ascertained from the tests, there would be a definite need for privacy regulations.\u00a0 Expanding beyond sport, the lack of privacy in this matter could lead to genetic discrimination from life or health insurance companies, as information on any given individual\u2019s genotype could be accessed (9).\u00a0 Putting safeguards in place to prevent this type of discrimination from occurring is a necessity.\u00a0 In this age of technology, the ability to collect, share, and manipulate personal information through computers has created some difficulty in maintaining privacy for individuals (13).\u00a0 There is valid concern about privacy that needs resolution before genetic engineering can be become an acceptable practice in sport.<\/p>\n Normative Arguments in Favor of Genetic Modification in Sport<\/strong><\/p>\n Research also exists that promotes the idea of genetic modification in sport.\u00a0 One such argument is that genetically modified athletes would perform at higher, unimagined levels, thereby adding more excitement to sport (15).\u00a0 As a result, fan base and attendance at sporting events could potentially grow.\u00a0 Since physique would be predetermined by genetic modification, the outcomes of sport competitions in the future would be based more on psychological, moral, and intellectual strength, thereby making the competitions more pure (15).\u00a0 For example, as it stands today, basketball players vary in height, with the taller players typically having a major advantage.\u00a0 If genetic technology is used in a way so that all players are tall, the physical advantage is removed, and constitutive game skills, combined with mental toughness, will determine which competitors will win.<\/p>\n To counter the argument that genetic engineering could potentially cause major health issues, it has been mentioned that people have always devised ways in which to enhance or improve their physical condition (15).\u00a0 While genetic technology has inherent risks, other technologies were also considered risky when first introduced.\u00a0 For example, certain weight training techniques and special dietary regimes can be risky for individuals, yet they are still permitted as methods of performance enhancement in sport (1).<\/p>\n It has also been theorized that genetic technology has societal and sport-related benefits. Brown (1) suggested that there is a responsibility to use scientific knowledge to improve physical well-being.\u00a0 It is impossible to see into the future, though, so there is no definite way of knowing the actual benefits or harms of using genetic technology for performance enhancement (1).\u00a0 However, just keeping the status quo for the sole purpose of fearing risk or change does not allow for improvement (1).\u00a0 \u201cWe can only struggle to make things better for ourselves and our children as best we can, knowing that we will often fail in these efforts, and only dimly aware of our next steps and their uncertain direction\u201d (1, p. 136).\u00a0 Brown\u2019s arguments are crucial ones that demonstrate the need to critically evaluate change and consider improvement that result from it.<\/p>\n While many ethicists and theorists have labeled genetic enhancement an unfair process, there are some who disagree.\u00a0 Loland (8) asserted that as long as safety provisions and equal access opportunities are put in place, innovations in sport technology should be pursued as methods of bringing out athletic talent and overall human excellence.\u00a0 Loland\u2019s argument assumes a state of equity.\u00a0 However, due to the \u201cgenetic lottery\u201d of life, it could actually be considered unfair not to utilize genetic modification technologies (5).\u00a0 It is a reality that inequality exists in many facets of life.\u00a0 For example, life is often considered unfair for individuals who lack the resources to overcome economic or social disadvantages (7).\u00a0 Similarly, it could be argued that genetic differences in individuals also lead to inequality of resources or opportunities (5).\u00a0 Thinking along these lines, Fox (5) contended that the use of biotechnology and genetic manipulation has the potential to move us towards a more just society.\u00a0 Fox, like most proponents of genetic engineering, is also aware of all the ethical concerns involved and recommends a cautious approach for implementation of this new technology.<\/p>\n Research on Sport Ethic and Policy<\/strong><\/p>\n For years, traditional doping in sport consisted of the use of performance enhancing substances, many of which are now banned (17).\u00a0 The banning of such drugs has brought about new ethical issues.\u00a0 In fact, it has been argued that the existence of an anti-doping policy has generated a climate of cheating in sports (6).\u00a0 Some researchers and members of sport ethics committees believe that new policies may actually encourage athletes to attempt gene doping, because, at the present time, there are not any reliable methods of detecting the use of gene doping in individuals (6).\u00a0 This is a serious issue that needs to be considered and addressed by WADA and other sport governing bodies.<\/p>\n Following those lines, it is important to realize that gene doping is unlike any other type of doping found in sport.\u00a0 Miah (12) suggested that gene doping be classified differently than traditional doping, because it is so new and its effects have not been firmly established.\u00a0 Miah (12) challenged policy makers to consider this situation very carefully.\u00a0 \u201cIn a world that permits the use of gene transfer technology for therapeutic purposes, it would be inconceivable that sports authorities could prohibit such athletes from competition, just because they were genetically modified\u201d (12, p. 155).\u00a0 This statement deserves consideration when establishing policies for gene doping.\u00a0 In terms of policy improvement, Miah (11) also stressed that policies regarding all forms of doping, including gene doping, should be presented in a more positive light.\u00a0 Rather than focusing policies on the negative aspects of doping, policies should be designed that define acceptable means of performance enhancement (11).\u00a0 This differs from current policies, which focus on substances and enhancement methods that are prohibited in sport.\u00a0 Presenting policy in this manner could lead athletes to choose among acceptable enhancement methods in their quests to improve performance.<\/p>\n CONCLUSIONS<\/strong><\/p>\n Future Research on Gene Modification in Sport<\/strong><\/p>\n There are several ethical implications of genetic technology as a means of performance enhancement in sport.\u00a0 Though there have been a few experiments on animals and some preliminary tests performed on a small number of humans, there is not enough data to be conclusive on the ethical issues that are present in the current philosophical and theoretical research.\u00a0 Future areas of research could focus more specifically on gene doping and how it is viewed by different cultures throughout the world.\u00a0 As more research is conducted on the scientific and ethical implications of genetic modification for use in sport, the dialogue will progress, and educated conclusions may be reached.\u00a0 While there will most likely never be final agreement on each of the arguments that currently exist, research can help support the decisions that will ultimately be made by policy creators and leaders of sport organizations.<\/p>\n Summary and Significance <\/strong><\/p>\n Decision-makers in the field of sports management have been presented with a very complex task.\u00a0 There are definite risks and benefits associated with genetic modification, and those who study ethics in sport will have no shortage of opinions to consider on this topic.\u00a0 The research presented in this review thoroughly discussed normative arguments against and in favor of genetic modification for performance enhancement in sport.\u00a0 Moving forward, it is critical that policy makers and governing sport bodies stay engaged in this dialogue, despite the difficult nature of this task, so that sport can continue to grow and stay relevant long into the future.<\/p>\n Strength, endurance, focus, and several other traits all lead to athletic success.\u00a0 Since the beginning of sport, athletes, coaches, and scientists have been developing methods to improve performance in sport.\u00a0 With each new method has come a set of ethical questions.\u00a0 As this fast-paced age of technology continues, the questions seem to be getting gradually more difficult to answer.\u00a0 Normative issues test our values, morals, and belief systems.\u00a0 They demand a critical evaluation of appropriate means to advance sport.\u00a0 Additional research on genetic modification will produce additional questions and answers.\u00a0 Working through these ethical considerations, it is crucial to maintain a focus on the safety of individuals, while not losing sight of the importance of keeping sport relevant and sustainable for many years to come.<\/p>\n Implications for the Sport World<\/strong><\/p>\n If genetic modification is permitted as a method of performance enhancement, elite sport will most certainly have a new look with new concerns.\u00a0 Though research is limited and inconclusive at this time, there is preliminary consensus that genetically engineered athletes would have some type of advantage over those who are not products of genetic technology.\u00a0 In elite sport, that advantage, even if it is very small, could be a difference maker in a close competition.\u00a0 Because physical attributes of genetically enhanced athletes will not be as necessary to develop, extra attention will need to be placed on psychological training, with an emphasis on motivation and focus.\u00a0 Elite sport and competition could potentially become more exciting and showcase more highly developed athletes as a result of this new technology if allowed.<\/p>\n As indicated by the research, a concentrated effort should be made on measuring the risks and benefits of genetic modification.\u00a0 This can only happen through additional study and discussion.\u00a0 Sports leaders and policy makers will have to settle the debate and determine what types of genetic modification, if any, are acceptable for sport.\u00a0 Whatever the end result may be, it is clear the sport is continuously evolving and ethical issues will continue to surface as athletes search for the latest and greatest methods of enhancing performance.<\/p>\n ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<\/strong><\/p>\n None<\/p>\n REFERENCES<\/strong><\/p>\n Submission by Dr. John T. Ehrbar1* 1* Student of doctoral […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_is_tweetstorm":false,"jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_options":[]},"categories":[290],"tags":[596,511,595,475,208],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/p4btio-IH","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":408,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/a-coachs-responsibility-learning-how-to-prepare-athletes-for-peak-performance\/","url_meta":{"origin":2771,"position":0},"title":"A Coach’s Responsibility: Learning How to Prepare Athletes for Peak Performance","date":"February 14, 2011","format":false,"excerpt":"Scott R. Johnson, Pamela J. Wojnar, William J. Price, Timothy J. Foley, Jordan R. Moon, Enrico N. Esposito, and Fred J. Cromartie ### Abstract The coaching profession is ever-changing and coaches at each level of sport competition need to know more than just the Xs and Os in order to\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports Coaching"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":239,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/performance-enhancement-drugs-knowledge-attitude-and-intended-behavior-among-community-coaches-in-hong-kong\/","url_meta":{"origin":2771,"position":1},"title":"Performance Enhancement Drugs: Knowledge, Attitude, And Intended Behavior Among Community Coaches In Hong Kong","date":"June 7, 2006","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Lena Fung Abstract The purpose of the study was to elucidate the perceived knowledge, actual knowledge, attitude, and intended behavior of community coaches with respect to performance enhancement drugs (PED). The Theory of Planned Behavior was used as a guiding framework to structure the questionnaire used for data\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"Table 1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2008\/03\/Table12.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":4961,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/athlete-perceptions-of-a-monitoring-and-strength-and-conditioning-program\/","url_meta":{"origin":2771,"position":2},"title":"Athlete Perceptions of a Monitoring and Strength and Conditioning Program","date":"March 30, 2017","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: Jacob P Reed(1), Mauro Palmero(2), Kimitake Sato(3), Cheng-Tu Hsieh(4), Michael Stone(3) (1)Kinesiology, Allied Health, and Human Services University of Northern Iowa Cedar Falls, IA 50614 (2)Hospitality Management Department University of Missouri Columbia Columbia, MO 65211 (3)Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education Department of Exercise and Sport\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports Health & Fitness"","img":{"alt_text":"Table 1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/03\/Table1-1.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":2858,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/how-mindfulness-training-may-mediate-stress-performance-and-burnout\/","url_meta":{"origin":2771,"position":3},"title":"How Mindfulness Training may mediate Stress, Performance and Burnout","date":"July 15, 2015","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by \u00a0P. Furrer1*,\u00a0Dr.\u00a0F. Moen2*, \u00a0and. Dr. K. Firing3* 1* Master student; Faculty of Teacher Education; The Nord-Tr\u00f8ndelag University College; Levanger, Norway 2* Associate Professor; Department of Education; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim, Norway 3*Associate Professor; Department of Leadership; The Royal Norwegian Air Force Academy; Trondheim, Norway Frode\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":5714,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/the-effects-of-perceptual-cognitive-training-on-subjective-performance-in-elite-athletes\/","url_meta":{"origin":2771,"position":4},"title":"The effects of Perceptual-Cognitive training on Subjective Performance in Elite Athletes","date":"May 31, 2018","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: F. Moen1, M. Hrozanova2, and A. M. Pensgaard3 Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Education and Lifelong Learning, Faculty of Social and Educational Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway, 2Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Research"","img":{"alt_text":"Table 1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/05\/Table-1.png?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":83,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/a-coachs-guide-to-recognizing-alcoholdrug-problems-among-athletes\/","url_meta":{"origin":2771,"position":5},"title":"A Coach’s Guide to Recognizing Alcohol\/Drug Problems Among Athletes","date":"February 13, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: UMASS Athletic Health Enhancement Program How do I know if one of my athletes is abusing alcohol, drugs, or both? Assessing a potential alcohol or drug problem is a difficult and often frustrating process. Your influential role as a coach and a confidant, however, places you in a\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]}],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2771"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2771"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2771\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2777,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2771\/revisions\/2777"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2771"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=2771"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=2771"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}\n