{"id":233,"date":"2006-03-04T17:06:04","date_gmt":"2006-03-04T23:06:04","guid":{"rendered":""},"modified":"2015-03-27T11:32:30","modified_gmt":"2015-03-27T16:32:30","slug":"an-exploration-of-state-and-trait-anger-anger-expression-and-perfectionism-in-collegiate-springboard-divers","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/an-exploration-of-state-and-trait-anger-anger-expression-and-perfectionism-in-collegiate-springboard-divers\/","title":{"rendered":"An Exploration of State and Trait Anger, Anger Expression and Perfectionism in Collegiate Springboard Divers"},"content":{"rendered":"
Submitted by: Jacob Sinclair, Daniel R. Czech, A. Barry Joyner & Barry A. Munkasy<\/div>\n

Abstract<\/p>\n

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between the
\ndimensions of perfectionism and various aspects of anger, such as state,
\ntrait, and the expression of anger, for collegiate springboard divers.
\nThe role of gender was also investigated. Forty women and 19 men were
\nadministered the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2 (STAXI-2; Spielberger,
\n1999) and the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (F-MPS; Frost,
\nMarten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990). Data analysis showed no significant
\ndifferences between genders for any scales or subscales of anger or perfectionism.
\nState anger and its subscales were not significantly correlated with any
\nsubscales of perfectionism. Anger expression scales were not found to
\nbe significantly correlated with the subscales of perfectionism. Only
\ntrait anger, and the subscale trait anger\/ angry reaction, were found
\nto have significant relationships with the concern over mistakes dimension
\nof perfectionism. The perfectionism personal standards subscale was also
\ncorrelated with trait anger\/ angry reaction.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Introduction<\/p>\n

Many athletes strive to reach the highest levels of competition possible.
\nCompetitors dream of the perfect game, performance, or skill execution
\nrequired of sport. Much time is invested into practice, conditioning,
\nand competition to provide athletes the best opportunity for a quality
\nexperience. With such emphasis placed on attaining so difficult a goal,
\nresulting failures are to some extent inevitable. Individuals who exhibit
\nqualities characteristic of the construct \u201cperfectionism\u201d
\nmay be significantly affected by these failures. How people experience
\nand react to failure is directly associated with the level and type of
\nperfectionism possessed. Those who demonstrate more adaptive perfectionistic
\nreactions to failures are more likely to express positive, or success
\noriented, thoughts about sport. Those whose reactions align with maladaptive
\nperfectionism likely will exhibit negative, or failure oriented, behaviors
\nfollowing failure in sport (Frost & Henderson, 1991; Hamachek, 1978).<\/p>\n

The most common components present in the various definitions of perfectionism
\nare the engagement of actions and behaviors that lead to the setting of
\nexceptionally high standards for the purpose of being the best in a chosen
\nendeavor. These actions are often accompanied by highly self-critical
\nevaluations by the perfectionist (Burns, 1980; Frost, Marten, Lahart,
\n& Rosenblate, 1990; Hill, Zrull, & Turlington, 1997; Lombardi,
\nFlorentino, & Lombardi, 1998).<\/p>\n

Hamachek (1978) has characterized perfectionism as either normal (adaptive)
\nor neurotic (maladaptive). According to him, adaptive perfectionists are
\nthose who set extremely high personal standards, are highly motivated
\nto do their best on every task attempted, experience pleasure while working
\nhard, and are able to recognize weaknesses which enable the individuals
\nto perceive themselves as successful, even when those high standards are
\nnot met. In contrast, maladaptive perfectionists are characterized as
\nthose who set unrealistic and inflexible goals, are driven by an intense
\nfear of failure, are extremely self-critical, and are unable to experience
\nsatisfaction from accomplishments.<\/p>\n

To measure perfectionism, a number of scales have been constructed (Anshel
\n& Eom, 2002; Burns, 1980; Garner, Olmstead, & Polivy, 1983; Randolph
\n& Dykman, 1998), two of which have been used the most consistently:
\nThe Hewitt and Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (HF-MPS; Hewitt
\n& Flett, 1991) and the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale
\n(F-MPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990). The HF-MPS measures
\nthree dimensions of perfectionism: Self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented
\nperfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. The F-MPS examines
\nan overall perfectionism score, and six independent dimensions of perfectionism:
\nConcern over mistakes, personal standards, doubts about actions, parental
\nexpectations, parental criticism, and organization.<\/p>\n

Perfectionists, maladaptive and adaptive, require that certain standards
\nfor themselves, others, and situations be met. When results are not perceived
\nto be adequate by the perfectionist, an emotional response may be elicited.
\nOne such emotion is anger (Saboonchi & Lundh, 2003). Anger can be
\ndescribed as a state emotion, or as a trait personality characteristic.
\nSpielberger, Jacobs, Russell, and Crane (1983) have conceptualized state
\nanger as the experience of negative feelings similar to being annoyed
\nor irritated, or to a greater extent, filled with rage. During this experience,
\nthe autonomic nervous system can become aroused to different degrees depending
\non the situation. Spielberger et al. describe trait anger as how frequently
\nstate anger is experienced.<\/p>\n

An exploration of perfectionism and anger by Hewitt and Flett (1991)
\nwas one of the first to examine how these constructs may be related. Using
\ndata from 91 university students, the study concluded that self-oriented
\nand socially prescribed perfectionism were correlated with anger, with
\nsocially prescribed perfectionism being more strongly related. These results
\nwere inconsistent with Saboonchi and Lundh (2003) who found that in a
\nrandomly selected sample of adult men and women with a mean age of 37
\nyears, self-oriented perfectionism had a weak correlation with anger,
\nbut other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism had no significant
\nrelationship. This study concluded that anger in perfectionists was manifested
\nmore so because of high goals not being achieved, than by any perception
\nregarding treatment by others. The age difference in the samples may have
\nconfounded these results, as evidenced by another study (Hewitt et al.,
\n2002) using children which resulted in dissimilar conclusions. Unlike
\nearlier research, this study found no correlation between self-oriented
\nperfectionism and anger, but did indicate a relationship between socially
\nprescribed perfectionism and aspects of anger. This type of perfectionism
\nwas shown to be positively correlated with outward expressions of anger
\nand negatively correlated with actions indicative of anger suppression.
\nThis lack of a relationship between self-oriented perfectionism and anger
\nmay be explained by children not holding themselves as accountable for
\ntheir actions as an adult might, and instead, lashing out at others who
\nare perceived to be placing unfair perfectionistic demands upon them.<\/p>\n

The results of these studies, albeit somewhat inconclusive, do provide
\nevidence that socially prescribed perfectionism may have a slightly stronger
\nrelationship with anger than with other dimensions of perfectionism. This
\ninteresting association has seemingly been unexplored within the realm
\nof sport, despite consistent findings of perfectionism in athletes (Owens
\n& Slade, 1987) and an association between poor performances precluded
\nby high goal setting and anger (Fazackerley, Lane, & Mahoney, 2004).<\/p>\n

Recently researchers began to examine perfectionism, anger, and sport
\ncollectively. Valance and Dunn (2002a), using their newly developed sport-specific
\nversion of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Frost, Marten,
\nLahart, & Rosenblate, 1990), found that with adolescent ice hockey
\nplayers, trait anger was highly correlated with the subscales concern
\nover mistakes and perceived coach pressure. Perceived coach pressure,
\na subscale of the sport oriented version of the F-MPS, is similar to the
\nparental expectations subscale of the F-MPS. The results of this study
\ndemonstrated a significant relationship between maladaptive perfectionism
\nand trait anger. A follow up study examining state anger and perfectionism
\nimplemented a situation criticality variable. Youth ice hockey players
\nwere measured for perfectionism and state anger in two scenarios which
\nhad different degrees of criticality to the outcome of the competition.
\nThe results indicated that maladaptive perfectionists had higher state
\nanger and experienced greater levels of anger following mistakes than
\nadaptive perfectionists during competition, particularly during a critical
\ntime period. The study also concluded that situation criticality, or the
\nextent to which a situation within a competition is perceived as critical
\nto the outcome, was positively correlated with emotional responses during
\ncompetition (Vallance & Dunn, 2002b).<\/p>\n

An aesthetic sport such as springboard diving has innate characteristics
\nthat focus on attaining perfectly executed performances. As a subjectively
\nscored athletic event, there is a set \u201cperfect\u201d score, for
\nwhich divers aim. It is plausible to believe that this standard may draw
\ncompetitors in this sport towards perfectionistic thoughts and behaviors,
\nwhich in turn may lead to situations conducive to experiencing greater
\nlevels of anger and anger expression. If an athlete who experiences anger
\nconsistently while engaged in sport can become more aware of how that
\nanger may be stemming from maladaptive perfectionism, a greater understanding
\nregarding the ensuing dysfunctional beliefs and actions may be attained.
\nThis may lead to a greater control over anger, more appropriate expressions
\nof anger, and potentially, performances that are less affected by experiences
\nof anger.<\/p>\n

Statement of Purpose<\/p>\n

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between
\nthe concern over mistakes and personal standards dimensions of perfectionism
\nwith the various scales and subscales of anger, as measured by the State-Trait
\nAnger Expression Inventory-2 (STAXI-2; Spielberger, 1999). Secondary purposes
\nwere to: a) examine how the parental criticism and parental expectations
\nsubscales of perfectionism relate to state anger, trait anger, and anger
\nexpression, and b) to explore how gender relates to the perfectionism-anger
\nrelationships.<\/p>\n

Methodology<\/p>\n

Participants<\/p>\n

Fifty-nine springboard divers, 19 men and 40 women, from varsity collegiate
\nteams throughout the United States participated in this study. The divers\u2019
\nages ranged from 18-26 years, had competed the previous two years, and
\nhad a minimum of two years competitive experience. Competitive experience
\nwas operationally defined as a minimum of six United States Diving sanctioned
\nmeets or six NCAA Collegiate meets per year.<\/p>\n

Instrumentations<\/p>\n

The Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Frost, Marten, Lahart,
\n& Rosenblate, 1990) was used to assess the dimensions of perfectionism.
\nThis scale consists of 35 items that use a five-point Likert scale ranging
\nfrom 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). The scale measures overall
\nperfectionism and six independent dimensions of perfectionism. The subscales
\nare concern over mistakes (CM), personal standards (PS), parental expectations
\n(PE), parental criticism (PC), doubts about actions (DA), and organization
\n(ORG). The CM subscale measures the extent to which an individual reacts
\nnegatively to one\u2019s own mistakes. PS measures the extent to which
\na person sets high standards. The PE subscales indicates the strength
\nof an individual\u2019s perceptions regarding his or her parents\u2019
\nsetting of high standards for the individual. PC is a measure of how a
\nperson perceives criticism from his or her parents regarding their performances.
\nThe subscales DA and ORG measure how satisfied or dissatisfied an individual
\nis with a performance or project, and how important order and neatness
\nis to an individual, respectively. For greater interpretation of the scores,
\na directional scale was added by the primary investigator of this study.
\nThis seven-point Likert scale measures how an individual feels perfectionism
\naffects his or her performance. Overall internal reliability for F-MPS
\nhas been reported at .90 (Parker & Adkins, 1995) and has been concurrently
\nvalidated by Frost et al. with the HF-MPS (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and
\nthe Burns Perfectionism Scale (Burns, 1980). Frost et al. also demonstrated
\na Cronbach\u2019s alpha of .91 for this scale.<\/p>\n

The State Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2 (Spielberger, 1999) was
\nused to measure trait anger, state anger, and anger expression. The STAXI-2
\nis a 57-item scale which uses four-point Likert scales. The first part
\nof the STAXI-2 is the state anger (SANG) scale. It consists of fifteen
\nitems measuring how intensely an individual experiences anger during either
\nthe testing period, or a time or situation specified by the test administrator.
\nFor this study, the individuals were directed to indicate how he or she
\ngenerally feels during a competition or practice. The Likert scale for
\nthe state anger scale ranges from 1 (Not at all) to 4 (Very much so).
\nThe state anger scale consists of three subscales: state anger \/ feeling
\nangry (SANGF), state anger \/ feel like expressing anger verbally (SANGV),
\nand state anger \/ feel like expressing anger physically (SANGP). The second
\npart of the STAXI-2 is the trait anger (TANG) scale. This scale consists
\nof ten items measuring an individual\u2019s proneness to experience angry
\nfeelings. The Likert scale for this measure ranges from 1 (Almost never)
\nto 4 (Almost always). Two subscales are used to comprise the TANG scale:
\nTrait anger \/ angry temperament (TANGT) and trait anger \/ angry reaction
\n(TANGR). The final part of this inventory measures the ways in which an
\nindividual expresses and controls anger. These scales consist of 32 items
\nusing the same Likert scale as the TANG scale. The following scales make
\nup this final part of the STAXI-2: The anger expression-out (AX-O) scale,
\nthe anger expression-in (AX-I) scale, the anger control-out (AC-O) scale,
\nthe anger control-in (AC-I) scale, and the anger expression index (AX).
\nLike the F-MPS, and additional seven-point Likert directional scale was
\nadded to measure how an individual feels anger positively or negatively
\naffects performance. The three primary components of the STAXI-2 have
\nbeen concurrently validated by Spielberger with various subscales of the
\nBuss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (Buss & Durkee, 1957), Minnesota Multiphasic
\nPersonality Inventory (Hathaway & McKinley, 1967), Spielberger\u2019s
\n(1979) State-Trait Personality Inventory (as cited in Spielberger, 1999)
\nand the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975).<\/p>\n

Procedures<\/p>\n

A packet containing a cover letter, the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism
\nScale, the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2, informed consent
\nforms, directions for the administration of the surveys, and a self-addressed
\nstamped envelope, was sent to university teams. The letter included a
\nrationale for the study and the possible benefits to springboard diving,
\nin addition to information on the length of time necessary to complete
\nthe scales. A requested return date was also noted in the cover letter.
\nThe informed consent form addressed issues regarding an assurance of confidentiality
\nand anonymity. The information in the packet was to be read by those administering
\nthe scales.<\/p>\n

The diving programs were contacted by either phone or email prior to
\nreceiving the surveys. The scales were administered primarily in the practice
\nfacilities for each team. Data were also collected at a diving competition
\nfrom those individuals who met the prerequisites. In this case, the packets
\nwere distributed at a pre-competition meeting and were to be returned
\nas soon as possible. Most were returned by mail several weeks later.<\/p>\n

A reminder email was sent two weeks prior to the return date. Packets
\nwere mailed a second time to those programs who had requested an additional
\npacket. Collection ceased soon after the deadline had passed.<\/p>\n

Results<\/p>\n

Multiple Pearson\u2019s Correlation analyses were conducted to examine
\nthe relationships between: a) the F-MPS subscales CM and PS with all scales
\nand subscales of the STAXI-2, and b) the F-MPS subscales PE, PE, DA, and
\nORG with the STAXI-2 scales SANG, TANG, and the AX Index. Because there
\nwere 35 correlations examined and 10 independent t-tests analyzed, the
\nalpha level was adjusted to p < .01.<\/p>\n

The subscale CM resulted in two significant correlations. TANG showed
\na weak, positive relationship (r = .374, r2 = .140, p < .01), while
\nTANGR (r = .490, r2 = .240, p < .01) demonstrated a moderate, positive
\nrelationship. No other scales or subscales of the STAXI-2 were found to
\nbe significantly correlated with CM, and only one other scale approached
\nsignificance; AX-I (r = .310, r2 = .096, p = .019). Results for all correlations
\nfor CM are shown in Tables 1, 2, and 3.<\/p>\n

For the F-MPS subscale PS and the STAXI-2 scales and subscales, only
\none significant correlation surfaced. TANGR was found to have a weak,
\npositive relationship with PS (r = .408, r2 = .166, p < .01). Two other
\nSTAXI-2 scales approached significance: TANG (r = .307, r2 = .094, p =
\n.019) and AC-I (r = .310, r2 = .096, p = .018). The correlations for PS
\nare shown in Tables 1, 2, and 3.<\/p>\n

For all other correlations examined, only one was found to be significant
\nat the alpha level of p < .01. PE was found to have a weak, positive
\nrelationship with TANG (r = .397, r2 = .158, p < .01) as shown in Table
\n4.<\/p>\n

To examine the differences between genders for the F-MPS subscales CM,
\nPS, PE and PC, four two-tailed independent t-tests were utilized. These
\nindependent t-tests, along with all others used in this study, had an
\nalpha level adjusted to p < .01. Results show no significant differences
\nbetween men and women for the above constructs. See Table 5.<\/p>\n

Three one-tailed independent t-tests revealed no significant differences
\nbetween genders on SANG, AX-I, and AX-O. See Table 6.<\/p>\n

For the STAXI-2 scale TANG, a two-tailed independent t-test again resulted
\nin no significant differences between genders. See Table 7.<\/p>\n

The directional scales added to the F-MPS and the STAXI-2 surveys also
\nresulted in no significant differences between genders. See Table 8.<\/p>\n

To examine the differences between the correlations specified in the
\nhypotheses, a Fisher\u2019s zr transformation was utilized. However,
\nonly a single transformation contained at least one significant correlation,
\nthus essentially nullifying any significant results for all others, of
\nwhich there were none. The one Fisher\u2019s zr transformation that did
\ncontain a significant relationship, CM and PS for TANG, also resulted
\nin a non-significant difference between correlations.<\/p>\n

Discussion<\/p>\n

The data analysis on the relationship between the perfectionism subscales
\nand SANG resulted in unexpected outcomes. Individuals who score highly
\non the CM subscale have an increased focus on errors (Frost, Marten, Lahart,
\n& Rosenblate, 1990) and have a greater desire to self-present positively
\nto others (Hamachek, 1978). Because athletes fitting this criterion are
\nless able to remove negative athletic related images from his or her mind
\n(Frost & Henderson, 1991) it was hypothesized that SANG would be positively
\ncorrelated with CM. Additionally, Hewitt and Flett (1991) found a correlation
\nbetween socially prescribed perfectionism and a measure of anger, which
\nalthough not specified, appeared to be more closely related to state anger.
\nSocially prescribed perfectionism has been found to be significantly correlated
\nwith CM (Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993) but unexpectedly,
\nCM was not found to have a significant relationship with SANG for the
\ncurrent study despite its correlation with AX-I approaching significance
\n(r = .310, r2 = .094, p = .019). This may lead to the conclusion that
\nthose who score highly on CM may experience angry feelings, but perhaps
\nnot during diving practice or competition, as only the SANG scale of the
\nSTAXI-2 (Speilberger, 1999) inquires about emotions coinciding with the
\ndiving experience.<\/p>\n

Examining the subscales of SANG, and the relationships present with the
\nCM and PS subscales of perfectionism, resulted in additional counter-intuitive
\nfindings. Vallance and Dunn (2002b) found that maladaptive perfectionists,
\nor those who\u2019s CM score was high, had significant correlations with
\nSANGF and SANGV. The current study\u2019s hypothesis proved to be incorrect,
\nin that CM did not have a significantly stronger correlation with these
\nsubscales than did PS. In fact, PS had a stronger correlation with SANGF,
\nalthough none of these correlations were significant at p < .01.<\/p>\n

The final SANG subscale, SANGP, also resulted in relationships with PS
\nand CM that were not significant. It was presumed that participating in
\na sport in which the participant is under water and out of view immediately
\nfollowing a performance, in addition to having the opportunity to leave
\nthe immediate vicinity of the competitive venue during a competition or
\npractice, would increase the incidence of a diver\u2019s desire to express
\nanger in a physical manner. Examples of these expressions might be hitting
\nwalls under water, clenching fists or other muscles, or slamming lockers.
\nHowever, this proved not to be the case, and may be due to the fact that
\ntwo of the five items of the STAXI-2 (Spielberger, 1999) which measure
\nSANGP describe acting violent toward \u201csomebody.\u201d The participants
\nof this study may have interpreted \u201csomebody\u201d as someone else
\nin the practice or competition setting. In springboard diving, this is
\nnot socially acceptable, as it may be in a few other sports, and would
\npotentially result in greater negative consequences.<\/p>\n

TANG, and its subscale TANGR, were found to have the greatest number
\nof significant correlations. TANGR was significantly correlated with both
\nCM and PS, with CM having a stronger relationship. These results were
\nnot unexpected as it follows logic that those who are most concerned with
\nhow they appear to others naturally might experience greater levels of
\nanger in frustrating situations, or following a negative evaluation. However,
\nit was unexpected that CM had a significant relationship with TANG, but
\nPS did not. Hewitt and Flett\u2019s (1991) self-oriented dimension of
\nperfectionism, which is significantly correlated with PS, has been found
\nto be positively correlated with TANG, but socially prescribed perfectionism,
\nwhich correlates with CM, was not (Saboonchi & Lundh, 2003). Because
\nof these previous findings, it was believed that PS would have a stronger
\nrelationship with TANG than CM. However, results of this study showed
\nthe opposite. These findings demonstrate some support the premise that
\nspringboard divers who are more concerned about mistakes and how a performance
\nis evaluated may experience a greater frequency of angry emotions than
\nthose who are more concerned with eclipsing self-imposed standards.<\/p>\n

The perfectionism subscales examining perceptions of parents also resulted
\nin interesting findings. TANG was found to be significantly correlated
\nwith PE, however PC was not. It appears that within the springboard diving
\ncommunity, anger may be experienced in greater frequency by those who
\nperceive parents as having extremely high standards imposed on him or
\nher, than by those who perceive parents as overly critical for not meeting
\ncertain standards. Perhaps this is due to other emotions being elicited
\nby those with overly critical parents, such as sadness, apathy, or resignation.
\nMore research is needed in this area for a greater understanding of this
\ndynamic.<\/p>\n

Examining gender in the context of perfectionism, anger, and springboard
\ndiving also brought about interesting findings. Based on previous literature
\n(Anshel, & Eom, 2002; Flett, Hewitt, Endler, & Tassone, 1995;
\nFrost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993; Gotwals, Dunn, &
\nWayment, 2003; Saboonchi, & Lundh, 2003) it was believed that perfectionism
\nwould not be significantly different between genders. The results of this
\nstudy supported conclusions drawn in earlier research regarding the similarities
\nbetween how men and women experience perfectionism. What was surprising
\nwere the differences between genders for the various scales and subscales
\nof anger.<\/p>\n

Results for TANG and gender were consistent with the findings of Spielberger\u2019s
\n(1999) investigation. There were no significant differences between gender
\nand the two subscales of TANG. This was also true for SANG and its subscales,
\ndespite Spielberger\u2019s findings demonstrating significantly higher
\nscores for men than women on each construct. In addition to Spielberger
\n(1999), Forgays, Forgays, and Spielberger (1997) revealed results supporting
\nthe belief that men and women experience anger differently.<\/p>\n

One possible explanation for the incongruence of SANG scores between
\nthe current study and those cited above is that for Spielberger\u2019s
\n(1999) study, survey items were to address the participant\u2019s state
\nat the time of the test administration in a controlled setting. The participants
\nused in this study were asked to recall and indicate how he or she generally
\nfelt during a competition or practice. It is possible that while diving,
\nsimilar state anger emotions may be elicited between genders, regardless
\nof how state anger is experienced in a more controlled setting.<\/p>\n

With regard to anger expression, it was hypothesized that women would
\nscore significantly higher on the AX-I scale, and men would score significantly
\nhigher on the AX-O scale. Results showed neither to be supported, with
\nwomen actually scoring slightly higher on AX-O. It is less surprising
\nthat AX-I scores were not significantly different, as Spielberger (1999)
\nhad similar results. However, the assumption in this case was based on
\nprevious findings that women experience shame with greater frequency,
\nand that shame is positively correlated with AX-I (Lutwak, Panish, Ferrari,
\n& Razzino, 2001). It was thought that being an elite athlete on display
\nin an individual sport such as diving, may have lead to increased instances
\nof shame if the athlete were to perform poorly. If this were the case,
\nwomen may experience shame with greater frequency than men, thus leading
\nto a greater propensity for experiencing and suppressing anger, as measured
\nby the AX-I scale. It appears, though, that participating in springboard
\ndiving is not sufficient enough to alter the extent to which men and women
\ntypically experience and suppress angry feelings.<\/p>\n

Interestingly, women did score higher on AX-O, although not significantly.
\nThese results refute the findings of Spielberger (1999) that men scored
\nsignificantly higher than women on this scale, and are even more noteworthy
\nwhen juxtaposed with Forgays, Forgays, and Spielberger\u2019s (1997)
\nconclusion that the outward expression of anger is a more distinctive
\nand significant event for women than men. It is possible that the lack
\nof significant differences within this sample may be due to the disparity
\nin the number of men and women participants, but greater research is needed
\nregarding the uniqueness of the similarities between genders for these
\ntypically asymmetric constructs.<\/p>\n

Overall, findings in this study produced unexpected results. The similarities
\nbetween genders prompts the need for future research on how springboard
\ndivers differ with samples derived from other sport populations. The relatively
\nsmall number of participants and the difference in the number of men and
\nwomen who participated may have affected these findings. Having only 59
\nparticipants may have decreased the power for the correlations and independent
\nt-tests to such an extent, that few correlations and independent t-tests
\nresulted in significance. Despite this possibility, it may be that there
\nis an aspect of springboard diving that either draws in a certain type
\nof individual to participate, or fosters similar personality characteristics
\nthrough participation.<\/p>\n

The lack of variability in this sample decreases the ability of the results
\nof study to be generalizable to individuals who participate in other sports.
\nBecause of this, differences between team and individual sports should
\nbe examined in future studies. There appears to be a very small amount
\nof research examining perfectionism and anger in an athletic setting and
\ncomparisons between team and individual sport participants has not been
\na focus. With social evaluation and individualized standards, cornerstones
\nof the dimensions of perfectionism, varying greatly between team and individual
\nsports, anger and perfectionism may prove to be experienced very differently
\nthrough participation in diverse settings. More research of this kind
\nmay lead to a greater understanding of how the perfectionism-anger dynamic
\nis uniquely experienced in springboard diving.<\/p>\n

Although not specifically scrutinized in the current study, there did
\nappear to be differences in scores between the normal population and springboard
\ndivers. Greater research is needed comparing the relationships of anger
\nand perfectionism between these groups. Understanding how these populations
\ndiffer on these constructs may shed light on the presence of conditions
\nthat lead to the formation of relationships between the various dimensions
\nobserved in this study.<\/p>\n

Finally, research that has a deeper focus on the trait anger-perfectionism
\ndynamic is needed. This study found the strongest and greatest number
\nof correlations between these dimensions, and understanding why this is
\nthe case could prove to be useful. Perfectionism is also a trait characteristic
\nand examining the development of these qualities, and the ties between
\nthem, could lead to greater insight into how they may be fostered or discouraged.<\/p>\n

Table 1
\nCorrelations for the F-MPS subscales Concern Over Mistake (CM) and Personal
\nStandards (PS) and the STAXI-2 scale State Anger (SANG) and subscales
\nState Anger \/ Feeling Angry (SANGF), State Anger \/ Feel Like Expressing
\nAnger Verbally (SANGV), and State Anger \/ Feel Like Expressing Anger Physically
\n(SANGP)<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
<\/td>\nSANG<\/td>\nSANGF<\/td>\nSANGV<\/td>\nSANGP<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
CM<\/td>\n.189<\/td>\n.139<\/td>\n.217<\/td>\n.120<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
PS<\/td>\n.209<\/td>\n.202<\/td>\n.160<\/td>\n.210<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Table 2
\nCorrelations for the F-MPS subscales Concern Over Mistake (CM) and Personal
\nStandards (PS) and the STAXI-2 scale Trait Anger (TANG) and subscales
\nTrait Anger \/ Angry Temperament (TANGT) and Trait Anger \/ Angry Reaction
\n(TANGR)<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
<\/td>\nTANG<\/td>\nTANGT<\/td>\nTANGR<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
CM<\/td>\n.374**<\/td>\n.187<\/td>\n.490**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
PS<\/td>\n.307*<\/td>\n.123<\/td>\n.408**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

**Correlation is significant at the .01 level (two-tailed)
\n*Correlation is significant at the .05 level (two-tailed)<\/p>\n

Table 3
\nCorrelations for the F-MPS subscales Concern Over Mistakes (CM) and Personal
\nStandards (PS) and the STAXI-2 scales Anger Control-In (AC-I), Anger Control-Out
\n(AC-O), Anger Expression-In (AX-I), and Anger Expression-Out (AX-O)<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
<\/td>\nAC-I<\/td>\nAC-O<\/td>\nAX-I<\/td>\nAX-O<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
CM<\/td>\n-.092<\/td>\n-.177<\/td>\n.310*<\/td>\n.135<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
PS<\/td>\n.310*<\/td>\n.113<\/td>\n.234<\/td>\n.136<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

*Correlation is significant at the .05 level (two-tailed)<\/p>\n

Table 4
\nCorrelations for the F-MPS subscales Parental Criticism (PC), Parental
\nExpectations (PE), Doubts About Actions (DA), and Organization (ORG) and
\nthe STAXI-2 scales State Anger (SANG), Trait Anger (TANG), and the Anger
\nExpression Index (AX)<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
<\/td>\nPC<\/td>\nPE<\/td>\nDA<\/td>\nORG<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
SANG<\/td>\n.178<\/td>\n.159<\/td>\n.035<\/td>\n-.078<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
TANG<\/td>\n.274*<\/td>\n.397**<\/td>\n.165<\/td>\n.031<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
AX<\/td>\n.179<\/td>\n.176<\/td>\n.030<\/td>\n-.054<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

**Correlation is significant at the .01 level (two-tailed)
\n*Correlation is significant at the .05 level (two-tailed)<\/p>\n

Table 5
\nResults for independent t-tests for gender on the F-MPS subscales Concern
\nOver Mistakes (CM), Personal Standards (PS), Parental Expectations (PE),
\nand Parental Criticism (PC)<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Subscale<\/td>\nGender (Number)<\/td>\nMean<\/td>\nStandard Deviation<\/td>\nSig.(2-tailed)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
CM<\/td>\nMen (19)Women (40)<\/td>\n24.7923.33<\/td>\n9.076.57<\/td>\n.483<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
PS<\/td>\nMen (19)Women (40)<\/td>\n26.6825.03<\/td>\n5.575.07<\/td>\n.260<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
PE<\/td>\nMen (19)Women (40)<\/td>\n13.7914.65<\/td>\n4.383.98<\/td>\n.455<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
PC<\/td>\nMen (19)Women (40)<\/td>\n6.958.20<\/td>\n3.923.09<\/td>\n.188<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Table 6
\nResults for independent t-tests for gender on the STAXI-2 scales State
\nAnger (SANG), Anger Expression-In (AX-I), and Anger Expression-Out (AX-O)<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Scale<\/td>\nGender (Number)<\/td>\nMean<\/td>\nStandard Deviation<\/td>\nSig. (1-tailed)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
SANG<\/td>\nMen (19)Women (40)<\/td>\n26.8924.40<\/td>\n8.778.10<\/td>\n.286<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
AX-I<\/td>\nMen (19)Women (40)<\/td>\n17.8917.26<\/td>\n4.563.44<\/td>\n.554<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
AX-O<\/td>\nMen (19)Women (40)<\/td>\n14.4214.56<\/td>\n3.664.22<\/td>\n.900<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Table 7
\nResults for independent t-test for gender on the STAXI-2 scale Trait Anger
\n(TANG)<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n
Scale<\/td>\nGender (Number)<\/td>\nMean<\/td>\nStandard Deviation<\/td>\nSig. (2-tailed)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
TANG<\/td>\nMen (18)Women (40)<\/td>\n17.2817.25<\/td>\n4.744.67<\/td>\n.983<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Table 8
\nResults for independent t-tests for gender on the directional scales added
\nto the F-MPS (PERDIRECT) and the STAXI-2 (ANGDIRECT)<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
Scale<\/td>\nGender (Number)<\/td>\nMean<\/td>\nStandard Deviation<\/td>\nSig. (2-tailed)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
PERDIRECT<\/td>\nMen (18)Women (38)<\/td>\n1.33.76<\/td>\n1.331.73<\/td>\n.223<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
ANGDIRECT<\/td>\nMen (18)Women (39)<\/td>\n-.28-.62<\/td>\n1.021.31<\/td>\n.339<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

References<\/p>\n

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Vallance, J., & Dunn, J. G. H. (2002a, October). Multidimensional
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Vallance, J., & Dunn, J. G. H. (2002b, September). The influence
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\nCanadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology, Vancouver,
\nBC.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Submitted by: Jacob Sinclair, Daniel R. Czech, A. Barry Joyner & Barry A. Munkasy<\/div>\n

Abstract<\/p>\n

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between the
\n dimensions of perfectionism and various aspects of anger, such as state,
\n trait, and the expression of anger, for collegiate springboard divers.
\n The role of gender was also investigated. Forty women and 19 men were
\n administered the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2 (STAXI-2; Spielberger,
\n 1999) and the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (F-MPS; Frost,
\n Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990). Data analysis showed no significant
\n differences between genders for any scales or subscales of anger or perfectionism.
\n State anger and its subscales were not significantly correlated with any
\n subscales of perfectionism. Anger expression scales were not found to
\n be significantly correlated with the subscales of perfectionism. Only
\n trait anger, and the subscale trait anger\/ angry reaction, were found
\n to have significant relationships with the concern over mistakes dimension
\n of perfectionism. The perfectionism personal standards subscale was also
\n correlated with trait anger\/ angry reaction.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_is_tweetstorm":false,"jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_options":[]},"categories":[295,291,296],"tags":[8,70,72,31],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/p4btio-3L","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":5359,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/relationships-between-perfectionism-training-load-and-elite-junior-football-players-self-assessed-and-coach-assessed-skills\/","url_meta":{"origin":233,"position":0},"title":"Relationships Between Perfectionism, Training Load and Elite Junior Football Players\u2019 Self-Assessed and Coach-Assessed Skills","date":"November 2, 2017","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: Fredrik Klund & Stig Arve S\u00e6ther Corresponding Author: Stig Arve S\u00e6ther. Mr Norwegian University of Science and Technology Department of Sociology and Political Science, Dragvoll, 7491 Trondheim, Norway E-mail: stigarve@ntnu.no 00477-355-1133 Stig Arve S\u00e6ther are associate professor in sport science at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. His\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports Coaching"","img":{"alt_text":"Table 1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/11\/Table1.png?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":8395,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/division-1-athletes-perceptions-of-sport-specialization-as-a-predictor-of-perfectionism\/","url_meta":{"origin":233,"position":1},"title":"Division-1 athletes\u2019 perceptions of sport specialization as a predictor of perfectionism","date":"October 21, 2022","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: Jason N. Hughes1,Colby B. Jubenville2,Mitchell T. Woltring3, and Helen J. Gray4 1Department of Business, Accounting and Sport Management, Elizabeth City State University 2Department of Health and Human Performance, Middle Tennessee State University 3Department of Health, Kinesiology, and Sport, University of South Alabama 4Department of Experience Industry Management, California Polytechnic\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Research"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/10\/Table-3.jpg?resize=350%2C200&ssl=1","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":2051,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/examining-the-relationships-between-task-cohesion-self-efficacy-and-competitive-trait-anxiety-in-college-team-sports\/","url_meta":{"origin":233,"position":2},"title":"Examining the Relationships between Task Cohesion, Self-Efficacy, and Competitive Trait Anxiety in College Team Sports","date":"September 5, 2014","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by\u00a0Ali Aycan Ph.D. Ali Aycan, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Sport Management at the Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey.\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between task cohesion, self-efficacy, and competitive\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"table1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/09\/table1.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":400,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/duration-of-pre-performance-routines-of-divers-and-performance-outcomes\/","url_meta":{"origin":233,"position":3},"title":"Duration of Pre-performance Routines of Divers and Performance Outcomes","date":"October 4, 2010","format":false,"excerpt":"Bell, R. 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