{"id":2007,"date":"2014-07-17T09:45:52","date_gmt":"2014-07-17T14:45:52","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/?p=2007"},"modified":"2017-04-18T08:56:48","modified_gmt":"2017-04-18T13:56:48","slug":"sartrean-ethics-and-sport-for-development-and-peace-programs","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/sartrean-ethics-and-sport-for-development-and-peace-programs\/","title":{"rendered":"Sartrean Ethics and Sport for Development and Peace Programs"},"content":{"rendered":"

Submitted by\u00a0Zachary Smith<\/p>\n

Zachary Smith is a graduate student in sport studies at the United States Sports Academy and currently resides in Grand Rapids, MI.<\/p>\n

ABSTRACT<\/strong><\/p>\n

The United Nations recently declared the first ever International Day of Sport for Development and Peace in recognition of \u201cthe power of sport to erase cultural barriers and mobilize people around the world\u201d (9). Unfortunately, while many organizations recognize the ethical neutrality of sport in name, this is often functionally forgotten as sport is co-opted for use by other programs. This paper aims to briefly outline this functional issue by observing the cognitive dissonance within the UN\u2019s statement and its characterization of the Olympics and World Cup events as archetypes of sport for development and peace programs. It will briefly examine this dissonance through the lens of a Sartrean ethic of ambiguity and recast the Olympic and World Cup events as archetypes of cultural hegemony. Finally, it will be suggested that until this dissonance is reconciled, SDP\u2019s will suffer from \u201cinauthenticity,\u201d severely hampering the program\u2019s ability to achieve stated development and peace goals, jeopardizing the \u201csurvival of sport as a noble human enterprise\u201d (Morgan, 1976 p. 93) and turning it into a \u201cmere vehicle for the exploitation of man\u2019s own self interests\u201d (Morgan, 1976 p. 91).<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

INTRODUCTION<\/strong><\/p>\n

The United Nations recently declared the first ever International Day of Sport for Development and Peace in recognition of \u201cthe power of sport to erase cultural barriers and mobilize people around the world\u201d (9).<\/p>\n

Not surprisingly, the UN\u2019s statement mentioned the two premier world sporting events\u2014the World Cup and the Olympics as being standard bearers for sport development and peace programs (16). The UN states \u201cthe need to generate a link between sport and peace and development\u201d (Sports, 2014 para. 4). The statement continues, \u201csports can bridge the divides of ability, language, age, gender, nationality and religion. The World Cup and the Olympic games are prime examples of sport\u2019s inclusive nature. They can be an important way of spreading a message of peace, driving social change\u2026 UN organizations are partnering with the International Olympic Committee to place sport at the service of humankind\u201d (Sports, para. 5). In addition, the UN astutely observes the ethical ambiguity of sport by stating that \u201csports can have a profoundly dividing effect bringing out the baser nature of humanity\u2026 revealing a dark side of human nature (Sports, para. 1).[i]<\/p>\n

Unfortunately, while many organizations recognize the ethical neutrality of sport in name, this is often functionally forgotten as sport is co-opted for use by other programs. This paper aims to briefly outline this functional issue by observing the cognitive dissonance within the UN\u2019s statement and its characterization of the Olympics and World Cup events as archetypes of sport for development and peace programs.[ii] It will briefly examine this dissonance through the lens of a Sartrean ethic of ambiguity and recast the Olympic and World Cup events as archetypes of cultural hegemony (14).[iii] Finally, it will be suggested that until this dissonance is reconciled, SDP\u2019s will suffer from \u201cinauthenticity,\u201d severely hampering the program\u2019s ability to achieve stated development and peace goals, jeopardizing the \u201csurvival of sport as a noble human enterprise\u201d (Morgan, 1976 p. 93) and turning it into a \u201cmere vehicle for the exploitation of man\u2019s own self interests\u201d (Morgan, 1976 p. 91).<\/p>\n

Illustrations of Dissonance<\/em><\/p>\n

The UN\u2019s affirmation that the Olympics or the World Cup are “prime examples of sport\u2019s inclusive nature” placing \u201csport at the service of humankind\u201d (16) comes in spite of recent reports about human rights violations, social cleansings, and government malfeasance associated with both of these events. Currently, the death toll of stadium development workers in Quatar is estimated to be around 1,200 (1) and according to the International Trade Union Confederation could climb as high as high as 4,000 by the time of the tournament kick-off (3). And in the case of the Olympics, the UN sponsored Centre for Housing Rights and Evictions suggests that the Games have displaced over 2 million from their homes from 1988-2008 (5).<\/p>\n

These statistics alone are enough to warrant a critical inquiry about the linkage of the Olympics and World Cup to SDP\u2019s. But further investigation reveals that these statistics are not just unfortunate consequences of these events; they are routinely pursued as deliberate ends by those with culturally hegemonic agendas. Ashok Kumar (2012) provides an illustration of this using the 1996 Olympics held in Atlanta:<\/p>\n

At the time, the New York Times reported that the Atlanta urban renewal projects saw \u2018virtually every aspect of Atlanta\u2019s civic life transformed.\u2019 In the Summer hill neighborhood adjacent to the Olympic stadium, for example, 200 slum houses had been leveled [sic], while \u201cclean, colorful subdivisions have risen in their place\u201d. As one business owner candidly explained, speaking of the poor and homeless \u201ceven if it means busing these poor guys to Augusta for three weeks and feeding them, we ought to do it. It sounds very brutal for me to say it, but they can\u2019t stay here for the Olympics\u201d (11).[iv]<\/p>\n

Kumar\u2019s example clearly illustrates the dark potential of sport to be used hegemonically, in this case as a tool of \u201cneo-liberal development philosophy\u201d (Darnell, 2010, p. 54). As Darnell notes, sport can be used as an active<\/em> means by which to reinforce existing cultural hegemonies as was the case in Atlanta, or it may also passively<\/em> \u201ccreate and sustain fundamental inequalities\u201d as it has done in Qatar (2010, p. 57). \u00ad\u00ad<\/p>\n

At first reading, the UN\u2019s language of \u2018humankind\u2019 and \u2018inclusivity\u2019 seems to communicate that sport\u2014both broadly, and specifically in the case of the Olympic and World Cup events\u2014can be placed at the service of all of humanity without discriminating against \u201cability, language, age, gender, nationality, and religion\u201d (Sports, para 5).[v] Yet ample evidence exists to suggest that both the Olympics and World Cup are sites of hegemonic repression. The building development boom in Qatar has reinforced the capitalistic demand of a wealthy country for migrant labor while the Olympics have been used for social engineering and gentrification in Atlanta, Beijing, and London (10, 15, 17-18). In both cases, the socio-economically disadvantaged groups suffered as a direct result of sport events that are, according to the UN, prime examples of sport placed \u201cat the service of humankind\u201d (Sports, para 6).<\/p>\n

Ambiguity and the Ethics of Authenticity<\/em><\/p>\n

The incongruity in the social goods being claimed and emanating from the Olympics and World Cup events creates an internal dissonance within the UN\u2019s SDP program.[vi] This dissonance can be understood as a \u2018negotiation,\u2019 to put it Gramscian terms, of the ambiguity within the Olympic and World Cup movement \u2018fields\u2019.[vii] Ultimately, the organizations\u2019 \u201ccognitive\u201d dissonance creates an attitude of what Sartre termed \u201cbad faith\u201d where the universality of the human condition is denied (Malloy et al, p. 293). \u201cBad faith\u201d is a form of inauthenticity which, for a Sartrean ethic, hinges upon three conditions: \u201clucid consciousness\u2026 accepting responsibility\u201d and \u201crespect[ing] and recogniz[ing] the freedom others\u201d (Heter, 2006 p. 22). Ethically, inauthenticity is what Sartre might call \u201cintersubjective alienation\u201d.[viii]<\/p>\n

Medlock (2012) helpfully brings Sartre\u2019s idea of authenticity to bear specifically upon democratic development programs (13). He states, \u201cThe ideal of authenticity is important\u2026 for the vision of a healthy, growth oriented and innovative society\u201d (Medlock, 2012, p. 41). Additionally, \u201ca culture that encourages the development of the unique strengths and abilities of its citizens is more likely to succeed\u2026 than one that stifles those capabilities in the interest of other goods\u201d (Medlock, 2012, p. 42). This is because, as Simone de Beauvoir (1947\/2000, pp. 15, 18, 60) has suggested, ethical action is congruous with freedom, and any action that is ethical will also be congruous with the freedom of others (4).[ix] When individuals rightly accept their own agency and ability to act and then act in accordance with that freedom they behave authentically. And as is implied by Medlock (2012, p. 41-42) in the quotations above, when people are free and being \u201ctrue to themselves\u201d they are much more likely to create to engage in the creation of culture and encourage the growth of a balanced society (13). By ignoring the negative goods brought about by the Olympics and World Cup and engaging in inauthentic behaviors,[x] the UN counteracts its own SDP programs and aims in a palpable way.[xi]<\/p>\n

The end result is a sport functioning as a neo-liberal development tool that, while advancing social development and peace initiatives simultaneously becomes a hegemonic mechanism which triggers intersubjective alienations. By using the Olympics and World Cup to attempt to generate a positive link between sport and development and peace programs, the UN has ignored their own statements concerning the ethics of sports programs, undermined their own messages regarding sport for development and peace, and behaved unethically by propagating inauthentic narratives about sport for development and peace.<\/p>\n

CONCLUSIONS<\/strong><\/p>\n

While the UN and others cast the Olympic and World Cup events as archetypes of the SDP movement,[xii] a Sartrean ethical reading of these two events as socio-ethical texts reveals them to be simultaneously archetypical of cultural hegemonies.[xiii] And thus, \u201cwhat is at issue here is not something trivial but the literal survival of sport as a noble human enterprise\u2026 which is not only destructive of sport per se<\/em> but of humanity at large\u201d (Morgan, 1976 p. 92-93).[xiv] If the global community wants to continue to use sport for development and peace programs, it needs to first examine its uses and abuses of sport.<\/p>\n

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT<\/strong><\/p>\n

It is clear that even with the best of intentions, there are real risks to deploying sport for development and peace programs. David Black (2010) has noted many of these trends and risks, but has perceptively suggested that SDP, as relative newcomer to the development enterprise, is situated in a position to avoid the pitfalls of preceding development programs (2). It is instructive then to observe the unfolding narratives of SDP programs and analyze them up against their facticity. Doing so reveals that, like all social endeavors, SDP is a complex web of relationships among a varied community of stakeholders. If SDP is to foster true and inclusive development \u201cfor all,\u201d then it will need to rigorously grapple with the diverse identities of these communities and seek expressions that reflect the visions of the broader communities, not just the visions of those with money, power, and influence.<\/p>\n

ENDNOTES<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \n
  1. For further discussion on the ethical ambiguity of sport see Darnell (2010 p54) and Gleaves and Llewelyn (2013).<\/li>\n
  2. Abbreviated as SDP hereafter.<\/li>\n
  3. Due to space, the development and interpretation of this ethic has been left out of this essay with the exception of several of the core tenets as they apply to this essay. See Morgan (1976) for an outline of the Sartrean Ethic of Ambiguity with an eye towards application for sport (14).<\/li>\n
  4. Kumar (2012) continues\u00a0\u201cOnce selected, a city expends vast amounts of public resource to begin a program of forced displacement, rental speculation, urban renewal projects, demolition of public housing and gentrification. In fact, if there is one thread that runs through almost every Olympic event it is that the poor of each Games subsidise [sic] their own violent dispossession\u201d (11).<\/li>\n
  5. For the purpose of this discussion we might add socio-economic status to this list.<\/li>\n
  6. It should be noted that some of the goods being claimed are delivered. This affirmation of partial truths, however, strengthens social trust in the ability of sport to deliver ethically positive goods. Once this social trust in sport has been built up, sport then becomes a \u2018trojan horse\u2019 as a tool of hegemonic repression in a manner which is often hidden and left unquestioned.<\/li>\n
  7. In a review of this point, Arthur Ogden pointed out that this seemed to \u201cstretch the boundaries of ‘ambiguity’ with respect to the morality of cultural hegemony\u2026 actually, it is the morally duplicitous operations and functions of the international Olympic movement as well as FIFA which fosters this conundrum\u201d (A. Ogden, personal communication, May 19, 2014). I do think, however, that this is precisely why cultural hegemonies can be cast as ambiguous. There is a very real sense of both facticity and freedom even within cultural hegemonies, and it is this ambiguity of the situation, so to speak, that allows a hegemony to be \u2018negotiated.\u2019 There is a constant ebb and flow, appropriation and re-appropriation of language, symbols, systems, and structures. Here I might also suggest that such cultural hegemonies, understood as kinds of cultural institutions, are contingent upon the communities constituting them. Ogden gets at this in his comment when he says that the IOC and FIFA can engage in \u201cmorally duplicitous operations,\u201d suggesting that it is not the formal structures of the institution that are engaging in ethical behaviors but the members of the institutions, the communities of practice that constitute the institutions that give the institutions themselves a moral force in action. See also de Beauvoir (1947\/2000, p. 83), \u201cThat is what defines a situation of oppression. Such a situation is never natural: man is never oppressed by things\u2026 he does not rebel against things, but only against other men.\u201d See also Black (2010, p.<\/li>\n
  8. This term mimics the use of Sartre\u2019s term \u201cintersubjective recognition\u201d. See Heter (2006) for a brief discussion of the original term (8).<\/li>\n
  9. \u00a0An ethics of ambiguity will be one which will refuse to deny a priori that separate existants [sic] can, at the same time, be bound to each other\u2026\u201d (Beauvoir, 1947\/2000 p. 18).<\/li>\n
  10. See also Gleaves and Llewelyn (2013). Following anthropologist Clifford Geertz, they note that \u201cSince sports are creations by communities, they cannot help but reflect those communities\u2019 values\u201d (2013, p. 6). As such, they can be read as \u201ctexts illuminating fundamental cultural patterns\u2026 insofar as groups embed their worldview, values, mores, and social customs in their sport. These stories\u2026 become meaningful narratives.\u201d Gleaves and Llewelyn continue on to build a compelling case for the importance of authentic narratives, concluding that doing so is a Kantian \u2018categorical imperative\u2019 (2013, p. 6).<\/li>\n
  11. That this is recognized palpably \u2013 that is, physically and concretely \u2013 is a main concern of Sartre\u2019s ethics.<\/li>\n
  12. \u00a0It should be recognized that in some areas, these events certainly are exemplary even for sport and development programs.<\/li>\n
  13. This conclusion recognizes the ability of sport to be used legitimately in peace and development programs, but also recognizes the complex ways in which cultural hegemonies can co-opt even \u2018legitimate\u2019 or \u2018ethical\u2019 uses of sport.<\/li>\n
  14. \u00a0This study could be extended to analyze the ethics of whether sport even should be instrumented for development and peace programs, and to provide a rubric for the instrumental use of sport. Such a study could have broad application for sport as it is applied to development and peace programs, education or pedagogical settings and programs, and even religious uses of sport as a vehicle for proselytizing.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

     <\/p>\n

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<\/strong><\/p>\n

    None<\/strong><\/p>\n

     <\/p>\n

    REFERENCES<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \n
    1. Aitken, M. (2014). Inside the Qatar 2022 World Cup slave camps: squalor, fear and\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 death for the workers building football theatres of dreams. Daily Record.\u00a0\u00a0 <\/em>Retrieved April 22, 2014 from http:\/\/www.dailyrecord.co.uk\/news\/uk-worldnews\/inside-qatar-2022-world-cup3380568<\/li>\n
    2. Black, D. R. (2010). The ambiguities of development: implications for \u2018development through sport.\u2019 Sport in Society 13<\/em>(1). 121-129.<\/li>\n
    3. Booth, R. (2013). Qatar World Cup construction ‘will leave 4,000 migrant workers dead’. The Guardian.<\/em> Retrieved April 22, 2014 from\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/globaldevelopment\/2013\/sep\/2\/qatarworldcupmigrant-workers-dead<\/li>\n
    4. Beauvoir, S. d. (2000).\u00a0The ethics of ambiguity. <\/em>(B. Frechtman, Trans.). Secaucus, N.J.:\u00a0 Citadel Press. (Original work published 1947).<\/li>\n
    5. COHRE fact sheet: mega-events, forced evictions, and displacements. (2007).\u00a0\u00a0 Retrieved April 22, 2014 from http:\/\/www.cohre.org\/sites\/default\/files\/fact_sheet_megaevents_5_june_2007.pdf<\/li>\n
    6. Darnell, Simon C. (2010). Power, politics, and \u201csport for development and peace\u201d: investigating the utility of sport for international development. Sociology of Sport Journal, (27). <\/em>54-75.<\/li>\n
    7. Gleaves, J., and Llewellyn, M. (2014) Ethics, nationalism and the imagined community: the case against inter-national sport. Journal of the Philosophy of \u00a0Sport, 41<\/em>(1). 1-19, doi:10.1080\/00948705.2013.78542<\/li>\n
    8. Heter, T. (2006). Authenticity and others: Sartre\u2019s Ethics of Recognition. Sartre Studies International. 12<\/em>(2). 17-43. doi:10.3167\/135715506780451886<\/li>\n
    9. International day of sport for development and peace. (2014). Retrieved April 22, 2014 from http:\/\/www.un.org\/wcm\/content\/site\/sport\/home\/template\/news_item.jsp?ci=4108<\/li>\n
    10. Kennelly, Jaqueline and Watt, Paul. (2012). Seeing Olympic effects through the eyes\u00a0 of marginally housed youth: changing places and the gentrification of East London. Visual Studies, 27<\/em>(2). 151-160.<\/li>\n
    11. Kumar, Ashok. (2012). Want to cleanse your city of its poor? Host the Olympics.\u00a0Ceasefire. <\/em>Retrieved on April 22, 2014 from\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 http:\/\/ceasefiremagazine.co.uk\/olympics-opportunitycleanse-city\/<\/li>\n
    12. Malloy D., Kell, R., & Kelln, R. (2007). The spirit of sport, morality, and hypoxic tents: logic and authenticity. Applied Physiology, Nutrition & Metabolism 32<\/em>(2).289-296.<\/li>\n
    13. Medlock, G. (2012). The evolving ethic of authenticity: from humanistic to positive psychology. Humanistic Psychologist 40<\/em>(1) 38-57. doi:10.1080\/08873267.2012.643687<\/li>\n
    14. Morgan, W. (1976) An analysis of the Sartrean ethic of ambiguity as the moralground for theconduct of sport. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport (3). <\/em>82-96.<\/li>\n
    15. Plessis, Jean du. (2007). Olympic scale of sport induced displacement. ForcedMigration Review. (28). <\/em>54-55.<\/li>\n
    16. Smith, Zachary. (2014). \u201cSartrean Ethics and Sport Development and Peace Programs\u201d. Paper submitted for course at the United States Sports Academy. 8 March 2014.<\/li>\n
    17. Sports: bridging the divide. (2014). Retrieved April 22, 2014 from http:\/\/www.unric.org\/en\/ latest-un-buzz\/29132-sports-bridging-the-divide#.U0Fjm9D-HfQ.twitter<\/li>\n
    18. Tan, Z., & Silk, M. L. (2006). Recentering Beijing: sport, space, subjectivities.\u00a0 Sociology Of Sport Journal. 23<\/em>(4). 438-459.<\/li>\n
    19. Zheng, S. and Kahn, M. E. (2013). Does government investment in local public goodsspur gentrification? Evidence from Beijing. Real Estate Economics. 41<\/em>(1). 1-28.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

       <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

      Submitted by\u00a0Zachary Smith Zachary Smith is a graduate student in […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_is_tweetstorm":false,"jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_options":[]},"categories":[290,296],"tags":[513,512,511,245,208],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/p4btio-wn","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":5592,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/coubertins-influence-on-education-sports-and-physical-education\/","url_meta":{"origin":2007,"position":0},"title":"Coubertin\u2019s Influence on Education, Sports, and Physical Education","date":"March 8, 2018","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: Edward Burgo Corresponding Author: Edward Burgo Edward C. Burgo, Jr. 1900 Seacrest Drive Gautier, MS 39553 (228) 324-0439 ecbjr1980@gmail.com In the final year of his doctoral coursework at the United States Sports Academy (USSA), Edward currently works as a counselor at Pascagoula High School in Pascagoula, Mississippi. Having run\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Olympics"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":388,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/the-place-and-role-of-olympism-in-higher-education\/","url_meta":{"origin":2007,"position":1},"title":"The Place and Role of Olympism in Higher Education","date":"August 5, 2010","format":false,"excerpt":"Anton\u00edn Rychteck\u00fd, Charles University, Czech Olympic Academy, Prague, Czech Republic ### Introduction Interpreting the place and role of Olympism in higher education is a necessary and pertinent issue. The close relationship between the Olympic Movement and universities dates back as far as 1894. The fact that the IOC was established\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":279,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/college-sport-management-student-perceptions-regarding-special-olympics-curriculum-and-service-learning\/","url_meta":{"origin":2007,"position":2},"title":"College Sport Management Student Perceptions Regarding Special Olympics Curriculum and Service Learning","date":"March 14, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Reginald F. Overton & Brenda M. Malinauskas Abstract: This pre-test\/post-test study evaluated college sport management student (N = 21) perceptions of Special Olympics North America curriculum\/field experience. Pre-event and post-event values indicate that students had positive perceptions. Significant individual effects were found for General Orientation, Facilities and Safety,\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":203,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/marketing-and-promotion-of-the-olympic-games\/","url_meta":{"origin":2007,"position":3},"title":"Marketing and Promotion of the Olympic Games","date":"June 2, 2005","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Johnny K. Lee, Ph.D Abstract","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":375,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/educating-sports-entrepreneurs-matching-theory-to-practice-2\/","url_meta":{"origin":2007,"position":4},"title":"Educating Sports Entrepreneurs: Matching Theory to Practice","date":"July 6, 2010","format":false,"excerpt":"Dr. Anthony Borgese,Kingsborough College, City University of New York Abstract Sports entrepreneurship courses are part of sports management programs because some students hope to own their own sports-oriented business, and major sports conglomerates look to hire employees with entrepreneurial skills. Sports management instructors prepare students for these challenges. However, not\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports Coaching"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":3438,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/the-high-performance-management-model-from-olympic-and-professional-to-university-sport-in-the-united-states\/","url_meta":{"origin":2007,"position":5},"title":"The High Performance Management Model: From Olympic and Professional to University Sport in the United States","date":"February 4, 2016","format":false,"excerpt":"Authors: Jed Smith* (1), Peter Smolianov (2) (1) Head Strength and Conditioning Coach and an Instructor in the area of Movement and Exercise Science at the University of Northern Iowa and is currently a doctoral student at the United States Sports Academy (2) Sport Management Professor at Salem State University\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports Management"","img":{"alt_text":"Smith Figure 1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/02\/Smith-4.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]}],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2007"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2007"}],"version-history":[{"count":9,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2007\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":5103,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2007\/revisions\/5103"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2007"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=2007"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=2007"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}