{"id":174,"date":"2004-03-03T14:37:48","date_gmt":"2004-03-03T20:37:48","guid":{"rendered":""},"modified":"2016-10-12T14:43:45","modified_gmt":"2016-10-12T19:43:45","slug":"sports-development-in-botswana-africa-2","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/sports-development-in-botswana-africa-2\/","title":{"rendered":"Sports Development in Botswana, Africa"},"content":{"rendered":"
Submitted by: Robert Chappell<\/div>\n

Abstract<\/h2>\n

The Botswana flag has never been raised nor has its national anthem been
\nheard at the medal ceremonies of any major international sports competition.
\nThe aim of this paper is to critically analyze problems of sports development
\nin developing countries, taking Botswana, Africa as an example. This paper
\nis based on material collected from a number of documents on sport in
\ndeveloping countries, newspapers and material from the Internet. E-mail
\ncorrespondence was exchanged with a number of officials employed by the
\nkey providers of sports development in Botswana. An interview was conducted
\nwith a Botswana international athlete who was resident in the United Kingdom.
\nThe results of the research showed that Botswana has made great strides
\nin the administration and organization of sport since independence, but
\nthe economic advances that have been made are being threatened by the
\nHIV\/AIDS pandemic that has become the most devastating emergency in the
\nnation\u2019s history.<\/p>\n

Introduction<\/h2>\n

The republic of Botswana is situated in Southern Africa; it extends for
\n1100 kilometers from north to south and 960 kilometers from east to west,
\nand is the same size as France or Kenya, or slightly smaller than the
\nstate of Texas in the United States (US). It is landlocked being bordered
\nby South Africa, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe (Republic of Botswana, 2003;
\nCorlett & Mokgwathi, 1989; Mokgwathi, 1999). Despite its size, the
\npopulation of Botswana is only 1.47 million in 2004, 79.8 per cent of
\nwhom claim Tswana heritage (a Bantu group). It has one of the highest
\nbirth rates in the world, as the average Botswana woman will have five
\nchildren.<\/p>\n

Since independence in 1966, the national life expectancy increased from
\n49 to 69 years, but by 2004 it has been reduced by 25 years to 44 years.
\nAlarmingly, more recent research projected that the life expectancy could
\nfall as low as 29 years if the spread of the HIV\/AIDS virus was not slowed
\nor reversed. In 2001 there were 330,000 people living with HIV\/AIDS, which
\nis 38.8 per cent of the population. The virus is also expected to halve
\nthe population growth by 2006. This will have an enormous economic and
\nsocial impact especially as the HIV\/AIDS rate among certain groups of
\nthe working population is approximately 25 per cent (Political Profile,
\n2004). Botswana has the world\u2019s highest incidence of HIV\/AIDS; 85
\npeople per day become infected with HIV and will develop AIDS, and die
\nwithin a decade without affordable treatment. One-half of the natural
\ndeaths are linked to the disease, and 1 in 8 children are infected with
\nthe virus at birth (McIntyre, 2003).<\/p>\n

The relatively small population, and the concentration of the population
\ninto the southeast corner is due to the harsh physical and climatic terrain
\nof Botswana. Most of the country lies at an average elevation of 1000
\nmeters, and covering 85 per cent of Botswana is the Kalahari Desert; in
\nthe northwest is the Okavango Delta, and in the northeast is the clay
\ndesert of the Makgadikgadi Pans. Such features and the limited number
\nof urban communities make communication and travel difficult, thus presenting
\nlogistical difficulties with travel over long distances in order to participate
\nin sport. Softball, for example, is very popular, but there are a limited
\nnumber of softball teams in Botswana. Due to problems with traveling vast
\ndistances in the country, play is geographically divided between north
\nand south to minimize costs, and a national tournament is held annually,
\nat the National Softball Diamond Stadium in Gaborone.<\/p>\n

Economy.<\/em> Botswana has one of the world\u2019s highest rates
\nof economic growth estimated to be between 11-13 per cent annually (Botswana:
\nAfrica\u2019s Freest Economy, 2004; Toriola, 2001). In 1998, the per
\ncapita gross national product in Botswana was US $3070, which is high
\nby African standards. The wealth of the country may be important as research
\nby Nevill & Stead (2002) indicated a 0.71 correlation between the
\nGNP of the country measured in US$ and success in the Olympic Games in
\nSydney, Australia. So Botswana, with a high GNP by African standards,
\nis in a better position to succeed in international sport than many other
\nAfrican countries.<\/p>\n

Through fiscal discipline and sound management, Botswana has transformed
\nitself from one of the poorest countries in the world to a middle-income
\ncountry. The performance of the economy has enabled the government to
\nincrease resources for education, health, food, housing, and social welfare
\nprograms including sport.<\/p>\n

Success in international sport. <\/em>It is still the case that \u201cThe
\nBotswana flag has never been raised nor has its national anthem ever been
\nheard at the medal ceremonies of any major international competition\u201d
\n(Corlett & Mokgwathi, 1989, p. 223), although according to Mokgwathi
\n(1999, p. 136) \u201cthe BNSC has a vision which includes Botswana at
\nthe medal awards ceremonies of world class competitions.\u201d Botswana
\ndid not win any medals at the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia,
\nand only won 3 medals at the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, England.
\nBotswana was more successful at the All-Africa Games in Abuja, Nigeria
\nin 2003 when they won 6 medals. A Commonwealth Games medallist from Botswana
\ninformed me:<\/p>\n

“As a nation, our view for sport has mainly been for fun and enjoyment\u2026
\nwe had not taken it to demonstrate or put our mark\u2026but things
\nhave moved on and its just a matter of time, let me assure you that
\na medal is coming within 2 years\u2026even at the Olympics this year.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Concluding evaluation. <\/em>Botswana\u2019s elevation to a middle-income
\ncountry reflects its record of political and social stability, economic
\ngrowth, and prudent economic management. (Botswana Economy: Facts and
\nFigures, 2004; The World Bank Factbook: Botswana, 2004). I was told that:<\/p>\n

“The party that is in power now has been in power since independence
\nand it seems that Botswanans are happy with the way Mogae (the President)
\nruns the economy and the way he runs the country. We are fortunate and
\nI salute all those guys working around the clock in shaping Botswana
\nto be who she is today.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

The high rate of unemployment that officially is 21 per cent, although
\nunofficial estimates are closer to 41 per cent in 2001, and the HIV\/AIDS
\npandemic threaten Botswana\u2019s economic gains (McIntyre, 2003).<\/p>\n

Further, Botswana suffers from a widely scattered population, as there
\nare vast distances between centers of population, although most of the
\nurban population lives in the southeast corner of the country. The GNP
\nis high by African standards, and its population remains small. But as
\nin many African countries there is migration from rural to urban areas
\nthat have resulted in the creation of shantytowns, homelessness, unemployment
\nand crime.<\/p>\n

Despite these problems, Botswana has achieved sustainable economic growth;
\nit is a peaceful democratic country despite being surrounded by countries
\nin which there is economic and political turbulence. Botswana is a positive
\nrole model for other African countries, south of the Sahara, and it is
\nin this context that the role of sport in Botswana will be examined.<\/p>\n

Theoretical framework. <\/em>All of the countries in Africa including
\nBotswana, with the interesting exception of South Africa, may be described
\nas developing countries. For Giddens (2001) the distinguishing features
\nof developing countries is that their political systems are modeled on
\nsystems established in societies in the West; most of the populations
\nlive in rural areas, but there is a rapid growth in the cities; agriculture
\nexport remains the main economic activity; western industrialism has undermined
\nmore traditional systems; and, they form distinct political communities
\nor nation-states. The concept of development is addressed by reference
\nto statistical data of the demographic conditions of the population, the
\nquality of public communications, the achieved technological standards,
\nlife expectancy, the nutritional situation of the inhabitants, and the
\ndistribution of wealth. More specifically in relation to sport, Coghlan
\n(1992, p. 1) defines developing countries as, \u201ca range of sovereign
\nstates that are to a greater or lesser extent in a process of social change
\nneeding co-operation and assistance from those that are better placed.\u201d
\nA distinction is thus made between developed and developing countries.
\nThis definition of developing countries implies that there are many similarities
\nin the socio-economic and political composition of such countries, but
\nthey also all differ in their traditions and histories, and in their stages
\nof development. Coghlan\u2019s (1992) definition of developing countries
\nis used as a template for the purpose of this examination of sport in
\nBotswana.<\/p>\n

The Problems of Sports Development<\/strong><\/h2>\n

Sports organizations. <\/em>In his detailed analysis of the patterns
\nof government involvement in Australia, Canada, Ireland and the United
\nKingdom, Houlihan (1997) maintains that in order to understand the development
\nof sport and sporting issues in different countries, it is necessary to
\nhave an \u201cappreciation of the development and organization of sport
\nand the dominant pattern of policy-making\u201d (p. 22). Hence, in order
\nto understand the problems of sports development in Botswana, the key
\nsports providers will be examined.<\/p>\n

In Botswana, the Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs (MLHA) (Corlett
\n& Mokgwathi, 1989; Mokgwathi, 1999; Toriola, 2001) govern sports administration.
\nWithin the Ministry is the Department of Sport and Recreation (DSR) which
\nserves as the \u201clegislative arm of government which co-ordinates
\nand provides overall leadership for sport development in Botswana\u201d
\n(Toriola, 2001, p. 10). I was informed that:<\/p>\n

“The objective of the Department of Sport and Recreation is to
\ncreate an environment in which all Botswana, whether rural or urban,
\ndisabled or not, can participate in sports either for fun, health, fitness
\nor recreation. This would mean that those who have potential to excel
\nwould be provided with the facilities and environment to reach their
\nfull potential. It would also mean promoting active living behaviors
\nthrough sports and recreational programs.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

The Botswana National Sports Council (BNSC) deals directly with the various
\nsports associations delivering competitive sport in the country, and therefore
\nserves as an intermediary between the government and the national sports
\nassociations (Mokgwathi, 1999; Toriola, 2001). The BNSC comprises representatives
\nof all of the sports organizations in Botswana, and according to Corlett
\n& Mokgwathi (1989) \u201cit has substantial power\u201d (p. 218)
\nmainly because the chairperson of the BNSC is appointed directly by the
\nMLHA (Mokgwathi, 1999). An athlete informed me that, \u201cThe BNSC
\nreports to the Government through the Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs
\n(MLHA), and its overall responsibility is policy formulation for sports
\ndevelopment.\u201d The BNSC allocates funds to sports organizations,
\nbut evidently this process has not always taken place in an equitable
\nfashion, as the BNSC fails to represent the interests of all of its members.
\nThe BNSC reports to the DSR, which due to its weak position in the MLHA,
\nis unable to offer significant financial assistance, and other resources
\nto implement major capital projects and policies planned by the BNSC (Corlett
\n& Mokgwathi, 1989). For example, the Botswana Softball Association
\nteam had to raise significant funds independently to compete in the World
\nChampionships in Michigan in the US in 2004, thus indicating a scarcity
\nof funds for representative international sports teams.<\/p>\n

The National Softball League is, in fact, one of the few national leagues
\nto be sponsored as Shell Oil Botswana has sponsored the league for the
\npast eight years. However, this sponsorship is not without conflicts,
\nas at the 2003 Shell softball prize giving in Gaborone, conflicts arose
\nbetween the players and sponsors as not all of the players conformed to
\nthe request to wear clothing supplied by the sponsors. For Marumo Morule,
\nthe President of the Botswana Softball Association (BSA), this indicated
\na lack of professionalism by the players. He said that the \u201csports
\ncodes must do what the sponsors want,\u201d thus raising issues in relation
\nto the organization of sport, the governing bodies of sport and the demands
\nof the sponsors (Teams \u2018soil\u2019 Shell Oil Ceremony, 2003).<\/p>\n

The BNSC is funded by an annual grant from government through the MLHA
\nwhich is distributed to operate various national sports associations affiliated
\nto BNSC based on their sport development needs (Toriola, 2001). As with
\nall such organizations, both in the developed and developing world, government
\nfunding is deemed to be inadequate despite an increase in the annual grant
\nbetween 1985-98 in order to meet the demands of sports development programs.
\nMuch of the money is used by the national sports associations to meet
\ninternational sports engagements, but the lack of qualified coaches, good
\nfacilities and funding has resulted in athletes being poorly prepared
\nfor international sports events such as the Olympic and Commonwealth Games
\n(Toriola, 2001).<\/p>\n

There is indeed increasing evidence that the government is taking a more
\nactive role in the development of sport and recreation in Botswana by
\nincreasing to P22 million ($5 million) the annual grant to the BNSC, and
\nproviding moral support to its athletes. When asked if the government
\nis involved in sports development, a Botswana athlete informed me, “There
\nis a Department of Sports and Recreation and if I recall well, there was
\na total of five stadiums to be completed around the country last year.
\nThe Vice President of Botswana was in Manchester cheering for me\u2026
\nyes the government is deeply involved.”<\/p>\n

The Assistant Minister of Labour and Home Affairs, Major Gene Pheto said
\nthat the increase in the grant and \u201cthe construction of sport facilities
\nin various villages throughout the country is testimony of government
\ncommitment to sport\u201d (Government Committed to Sport-Pheto, 2003).
\nHe further stated that the money would be used by the BNSC to fund the
\n31 sports under their jurisdiction, and to ensure that the national team
\nparticipates in international competitions. In order to improve performances,
\nthe BNSC has also introduced cash incentives to national athletes and
\nteams. But Toriola (2001) still feels that sports development is hindered
\nby poor sport structures and inadequate facilities that are typical problems
\nin a developing country such as Botswana.<\/p>\n

There is more recent evidence of the BNSC becoming increasingly involved
\nwith the promotion of sport at a local level. For example, Tebro Onkabetse,
\na member of the Botswana Football Association (BFA) speaking to the Bobirwa
\nSports Festival in Mmadinare, noted how the BNSC was helping to organize
\ndistrict sports festivals. He also noted that the government was committed
\nto providing a conducive environment for the development of sport and
\nrecreation, and that there had been acceleration in the provision of integrated
\nsports facilities throughout the country.<\/p>\n

Aid from the international community<\/em>. Botswana competed as an
\nindependent country for the first time in the 1980 Moscow Olympic Games.
\nDespite a demand by the US for all African countries to boycott the Games
\ndue to the Soviet Union\u2019s invasion of Afghanistan, Botswana felt
\nobligated to participate. This was mainly due to the close association
\nBotswana had with the Soviet Union who provided technical assistance in
\nsports development since independence.<\/p>\n

There has been significant Soviet influence on the structure and organization
\nof sport in Africa. This influence expanded in the 1980s and took many
\nforms. By 1982 over 200 Soviet sports specialists worked in more than
\n30 African countries. They provided material aid, sports equipment, and
\nliterature, organized sports exhibitions, and constructed sports facilities.
\nAthletes were encouraged to participate in joint training sessions with
\nSoviets. In 1981, there were 49 sports specialists from 32 developing
\ncountries studying in the Moscow State Higher Institute of Physical Education.
\nAs part of the Soviet propaganda effort to foster goodwill towards the
\nUSSR, and develop positive attitudes toward the Soviet state and its policy,
\nstatements expressing support for the USSR were also made (Chappell &
\nSeifu, 2000). Ironically, the US has also been involved in the development
\nof sport in Botswana. In 1981 Mal Whitfield an American Olympic gold medallist
\nvisited Botswana and recommended a framework for sports development, and
\nhis recommendations were a major factor in determining future policies
\nand decisions in the country (Toriola, 2001).<\/p>\n

Botswana still has a close association with the USSR\u2019s former ally,
\nCuba who provides coaches to train Botswana sportsmen and women in athletics
\n(track & field), boxing and volleyball (Toriola, 2001). An athlete
\ninformed me,<\/p>\n

“I think they started working in Botswana around 1996 if I recall
\nwell\u2026and they work on a contract basis\u2026. say two or more
\nyears depending on how they are doing. The current one in athletics
\nhas been there since 1998 and is doing a great job and will do much
\nmore if he is allowed to do his job properly!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Khumiso Ikopoling, a boxer from Botswana trains in Cuba under this scheme
\nof co-operation as he maintains that \u201cCuba has good boxers and good
\ntraining equipment compared with Botswana\u201d (Boxers Promise Fireworks,
\n2004).<\/p>\n

As in many other developing countries, the BNOC is a recipient of funds
\nfrom Olympic Solidarity, and this is used in order to fund sports development
\nschemes and coaching courses. With the support of these funds, an international
\nvolleyball course was organized by the Botswana Volleyball Federation
\n(BVF) sponsored by the BNSC in conjunction with the BNOC between 27th<\/sup>
\nDecember 2003 and 10th<\/sup> January 2004, and was staffed by a coach
\nfrom Egypt (Roberts tops Olympic Solidarity Coaches Course, 2004).<\/p>\n

Funding sports organizations. <\/em>The development of sport in Africa
\nhas been plagued by a number of problems. In the first place, extreme
\npoverty is the most serious obstacle to the development of sport, as funds
\nare needed to alleviate more immediate social problems. In soccer, the
\nF\u0117d\u0117ration Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) offers
\nfinancial assistance to promote the game, and is mainly used to develop
\nfootball (soccer) for the masses, and not to fund representative international
\nmatches that are, to a certain extent, self-funded. However, the lack
\nof finances has limited participation in international competitions. For
\nexample, in the qualifying stages of the 1994 World Cup, over 20 African
\nnations failed to complete their games due to the lack of resources and
\ncivil unrest, and similarly, 16 countries dropped out of the qualifying
\nstages of the African Cup of Nations in 1996.<\/p>\n

More recently, media attention in Botswana has focused upon qualification
\nfor the 2006 World Cup in Germany. Botswana (nicknamed the \u2018Zebras\u2019)
\nhave been drawn against Morocco, Tunisia, Kenya, Malawi and Guinea in
\ntheir Group Five World Cup qualifying matches. The winners of the competition
\nwill proceed to the finals in Germany in 2006, while the top three will
\nqualify for the African Cup of Nations to be held in Egypt in the same
\nyear. A tough competition is expected especially from Tunisia and Morocco,
\nboth of whom hope to do well in order to enhance their bid to host the
\nWorld Cup Finals in 2010. Optimism within the BFA is high as they have
\nmoved eight places from 36 to 28 in the African FIFA rankings (116 in
\nthe FIFA world rankings in October 2003) so they hope to make an impact
\non the qualifying group (Zebras Brace for World Cup 2006 Qualifiers, 2004;
\nZebras to Face Harsh Realities of World Cup, 2003). Football in Botswana
\nhas become an important focus in which the population may identify proudly
\nwith a local, national or international team. Support for the national
\nteam in World Cup qualifying matches represents the opportunity for the
\nexpression of national pride and identity.<\/p>\n

Participation in the World Cup qualifying matches, however, has raised
\nthe issue of a lack of finances as the BFA need to raise approximately
\nP7 million ($2 million) in order for Botswana to participate in the 2006
\nWorld Cup and the African Cup of Nations qualifying rounds. The BFA chief
\nexecutive, Falcon Sedimo announced that they were in dire financial trouble
\nand there was a likelihood that they might fail to honor some of their
\nfixtures if funds could not be secured in time. This might have been a
\nstrategic ploy to secure additional funding from government sources, but
\nit does highlight problems encountered by some national associations when
\nparticipating in international sports events such as the World Cup (Zebras
\nto Face Harsh Realities of World Cup, 2003).<\/p>\n

Similar financial problems have confronted the national softball team
\nwho competed in the International Softball Federation (ISF) XI Men\u2019s
\nWorld Softball Championships in Christchurch, New Zealand between 29th<\/sup>
\nJanuary and 8th<\/sup> February 2004. (Botswana Softball Team for
\nNew Zealand, 2003; BSA Names Players for Men\u2019s World Championships,
\n2003). Participation in the World Championships indicates the commitment
\nof the national association to play softball at international level, and
\nthe availability of some funds to support such ventures. But the team\u2019s
\nparticipation was thrown into uncertainty when the BSC pleaded that it
\nhad insufficient funds to participate, so appealed to the BNSC for assistance.
\nThe BSA had to raise one-half of the P300,000 ($1million) required to
\nparticipate, and the remainder was given by the BNSC. All finances were
\neventually secured just prior to departure and Botswana\u2019s participation
\nwas confirmed by the International Softball Federation (ISF) (Softball
\nMen for New Zealand Championships, 2004).<\/p>\n

Boxers from Botswana have achieved some success at international competitions,
\nand most national teams at international sports events such as the Olympic
\nGames, Commonwealth Games and the All-Africa Games include several boxers;
\nthey won bronze medals at the All-Africa Games in Egypt in 1991, and in
\nZimbabwe in 1995, the Commonwealth Games in Manchester, England in 2002,
\nbut winning medals at the Olympic Games has been more elusive. Boxing,
\nas with other sports, is hampered by a severe a lack of funds that is
\nrestricting the ability of boxers from Botswana to compete in international
\ncompetitions. Botswana was only able to send five boxers instead of an
\nallocated 10 to the Olympic qualifying tournament in Casablanca, Morocco
\nbetween 15-22January 2004. Further problems arose when two of the boxers,
\nLechedzani \u2018Master\u2019 Luza and Lesley Sekotswe were refused
\npermission to leave their jobs as teachers by the Ministry of Education.
\nThe BABA representative promptly called into question governmental support
\nfor sport as the government refused permission for its own employees to
\ncompete in the Olympic qualifying competition. The BABA maintained that
\nthis action was not in line with the Ministry\u2019s vision of Botswana
\nbecoming a competitive sporting nation. Discussions between the BNSC,
\nthe DSR, and the Ministry of Education did not secure the boxers’ release.
\nThe three remaining boxers who did compete in Morocco failed to impress
\nas one was eliminated in the preliminary round, and the other two were
\nbeaten during the quarterfinal stages (Botswana Boxers Fail to Impress,
\n2004; We are not to blame-BNSC, 2004). Further financial problems were
\nhighlighted by the inability of the BABA to replace the old electronic
\nscoring system that is required to determine the results of boxing matches.
\nHowever, this situation was rectified by the International Boxing Association
\n(AIBA) as the African Boxing Championships were held in Botswana between
\n15-23 March 2004 and therefore supplied the new equipment (Cash-strapped
\nBABA to send Four Boxers to the Olympics, 2003).<\/p>\n

Fledgling organizations. <\/em>There have been a number of problems
\nrecently that are typical of a fledgling organization trying to make an
\nimpact in African and World sport. These problems are an indication of
\ninstability in organizations that sometimes are not completely democratic.
\nIn March 2001, for example, the Botswana part-time football coach David
\nBright resigned following the 1-0 home defeat by Malawi in the first round
\nof the Confederation of Southern African Football Association (COSAFA)
\nCup. He had only just been appointed coach before this game in order to
\nreplace the veteran German coach, Heinz Marotske. Marotske was appointed
\nin January 2001, but mysteriously \u201cwalked-out\u201d from the position
\none week before the game with Malawi.<\/p>\n

In response to this situation, the Sports Minister D.K.Kwelagobe became
\ninvolved by saying that the Botswana government would help to pay the
\nsalary of a full-time coach in order to improve the results of the national
\nteam (Jelusu Veselin from Yugoslavia was eventually appointed). The intervention
\nof the government calls into question the independence of the BFA that
\nis a feature of the organization of sport in democratic societies (Botswana
\nSearch for \u2018Big Name\u2019 Coach, 2001). Further administrative
\nproblems arose in January 2004 when Falcon Sedino, the chief executive
\nofficer of the BFA resigned his post without disclosing the reasons for
\nhis resignation (Sedimo Quits BFA Hot Seat, 2004). Similar problems have
\narisen with \u2018in-fighting\u2019 within the Botswana Amateur Boxing
\nAssociation (BABA) over the appointment of coaches and managers for international
\ntournaments.<\/p>\n

In softball, steps are being taken in Southern Africa to re-address the
\nlack of an adequate international structure. Representatives from Botswana,
\nLesotha, South Africa and Zimbabwe met in Gaborone on 28th<\/sup>
\nNovember 2003 to establish a Supreme Council for Sport in Africa (SCSA)
\nZone VI Softball Confederation. Delegates maintain that the absence of
\nan adequate international structure was highlighted by the absence of
\nwomen\u2019s softball at the All-African Games (AAG) in Abuja, Nigeria
\nin October 2003. This was because a Zone VI tournament held as a qualification
\ntournament was not affiliated to the SCSA. In relation to the formation
\nof the confederation, Maumo Morule maintained that \u201cit means we
\nwill be eligible for all of the competitions sanctioned by the SCSA, we
\nwill be eligible for support from the government, and it will strengthen
\nsoftball in the region\u201d (Regional Softball on the Cards,\u201d
\n2003).<\/p>\n

Sport in schools. <\/em>A lack of suitable organizations is highlighted
\nin the structure of sport in schools, and this is significant as most
\nchildren get their sports experience through schools. The Botswana Institutions
\nSport Association (BISA) organizes sports competitions for junior and
\nsecondary schools, and is affiliated to the BNSC and based in the Ministry
\nof Education. The BISA organizes sports competitions on a school-term
\nbasis, that is athletics between January-May and ball games between May\u2013August
\n(Toriola, 2001). It also organizes international competitions between
\nthe smaller countries of Southern Africa. When asked about the structure
\nof athletics in schools in Botswana, I was told that:<\/p>\n

Yes, there is an adequate structure, which is quite competitive because
\nthose who became champions go on to compete with schools in Southern Africa
\n(it used to involve 6 countries including South Africa, Zimbabwe, Swaziland
\netc during my time: 1996-1998). The only problem is that there is no effective
\nand efficient structure in place to support those outside school, but
\nI have heard that something is coming up\u2026or has started as of last
\nyear.<\/p>\n

Despite having the BISA organizing competitive sport in school Mokgwathi
\n(1999, p. 128) still argues that \u201cthe major problem in secondary
\nschools is the lack of adequate facilities, equipment, trained personnel,
\nproper and safe transportation of the student athletes.\u201d However,
\nno such organization exists to co-ordinate the development of sport at
\nthe primary school level. This weakness in the structure of school sport
\nwas addressed by the former director of the DSR, Shaw Kgathi who called
\nupon an umbrella organization similar to the BISA to co-ordinate the development
\nof sport in primary schools. He also recommended that funding sport in
\nthe primary school level should also be increased (Kgathi for More Sport
\nFunding, 2003).<\/p>\n

Mismanagement within organizations. <\/em>Many new states seek to gain
\nmembership of international sports bodies in order to give their country
\nstatus, legitimacy and publicity value (Houlihan, 1991, 1994, 2000). Membership
\nof most organizations is dominated by a small number of predominantly
\nWestern European and North American democracies, therefore access is difficult.
\nEuropean and North American members, for example, dominate the International
\nOlympic Committee (IOC), and it is also a problem with many international
\nsports federations \u201cin which Western and European functionaries
\nstill dominate\u201d (Eichberg, 1984, p. 97). Many countries in Africa
\nseek membership of other smaller organizations, such as the Commonwealth
\nGames Federation, in order to have access to decision-making processes.
\nThese organizations tend not to be dominated by the major powers, are
\nmore concerned with policy decisions rather than exercising political
\npower, and are more democratic, thus allowing greater equality in decision
\nmaking (Houlihan, 1994).<\/p>\n

The development of the football in Africa has also been undermined by
\nthe lack of democratic processes within the administration of the sport.
\nFor example, Ismail Bhamjee from Botswana was optimistic of becoming President
\nof the Confederation of African Football (CAF) at the elections on 22nd<\/sup>
\nJanuary 2004. Bhamjee says that although voting is by secret ballot, he
\nwas assured of support from 7 out of 15 West African countries, 3 out
\nof 9 from central African countries and 11 out of 13 South African countries.
\nIn other democratic organizations it would be inconceivable to know the
\noutcome of a vote prior to it taking place, thus raising issues with regard
\nto CAF presidential elections being completely democratic (Bhamjee Optimistic
\nof Winning CAF Top Post, 2004). Further, some government officials often
\ninterfere in the organization and administration of football that destabilizes
\nAfrican football, and limits some country\u2019s advancement in international
\ncompetition.<\/p>\n

Concluding Comments<\/h2>\n

Corlett & Mokgwathi (1989) have argued that sport is a small part
\nin Botswana\u2019s culture. They further argue that in a fragile economy,
\nto succeed at sport would require resources to be taken from other sectors
\nof the economy. Quite rightly they maintain that in this situation the
\ndevelopment of sport might not be a priority. The impressive economic
\nadvances that Botswana has made since independence are being threatened
\nby the HIV\/AIDS pandemic that has become the most devastating emergency
\nin the nation\u2019s history. Botswana has the highest infection rate
\nin the world, and consequently household incomes are being reallocated
\nto assist AIDS patients within families. The pandemic is also compromising
\nchildren\u2019s ability to stay at school thus reducing their opportunity
\nto participate in physical education and sport. The greatest impact is
\non girls in Botswana who become infected at an earlier age and are at
\nleast four times more likely to become infected than boys.<\/p>\n

As most deaths from AIDS occur in adults of childbearing age, these parents
\nhave left an estimated 78,000-orphaned children. This number of orphaned
\nchildren is likely to overstress the government\u2019s capacity to offer
\nbetter delivery of social services including sport. If this trend continues,
\nan unprecedented number of children will be left without parental care,
\nand the traditional methods of caring for orphans will not be able to
\ncope. This again will reduce the resources available for developing sport
\n(At a Glance: Botswana, 2004).<\/p>\n

Botswana has made great strides in the organization of sport since gaining
\nindependence. The country is politically stable at least compared with
\nsome of its African neighbors. Relevant bodies to administrate sport in
\nBotswana, that is the BNSC, and the BNOC, have been established, as has
\ntheir terms of reference. Botswana has been represented recently in the
\nfinals of the Olympic Games, the Commonwealth Games and the All-African
\nGames. Indeed taking into account the small population (1.47 million)
\nand the vastness of the country that makes traveling problematic, Botswana
\nhas done remarkably well in international sport. But the BNSC ought to
\nencourage more of the population to participate in sport. The BNSC also
\nneeds to address the problem of transparency, especially in financial
\nmatters in sports organizations.<\/p>\n

In 1999, in order to develop elite athletes and coaches, the BNSC in
\nconjunction with the United States Sport Academy initiated plans for a
\nnational Sports Academy (Toriola, 2001), and this is an example of the
\ntype of co-operation that needs to be undertaken. But more needs to be
\ndone, and therefore Botswana needs to strengthen its agreements with countries
\nsuch as Cuba who can help to promote and develop sport for all in Botswana.
\nFurther, Botswana needs to take advantage of the schemes organized by
\nthe Olympic Solidarity Fund and those organized by federations such as
\nthe IAAF and the F\u0117d\u0117ration Internationale de Football Association
\n(FIFA).<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

References<\/h2>\n
    \n
  1. At a glance: Botswana (2004). Retrieved January 19 from <a
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    \n9 from     www.gov.bw<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
    Submitted by: Robert Chappell<\/div>\n

    Abstract<\/h2>\n

    The Botswana flag has never been raised nor has its national anthem been
    \n heard at the medal ceremonies of any major international sports competition.
    \n The aim of this paper is to critically analyze problems of sports development
    \n in developing countries, taking Botswana, Africa as an example. This paper
    \n is based on material collected from a number of documents on sport in
    \n developing countries, newspapers and material from the Internet. E-mail
    \n correspondence was exchanged with a number of officials employed by the
    \n key providers of sports development in Botswana. An interview was conducted
    \n with a Botswana international athlete who was resident in the United Kingdom.
    \n The results of the research showed that Botswana has made great strides
    \n in the administration and organization of sport since independence, but
    \n the economic advances that have been made are being threatened by the
    \n HIV\/AIDS pandemic that has become the most devastating emergency in the
    \n nation’s history.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_is_tweetstorm":false,"jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_options":[]},"categories":[290,296],"tags":[60,8,31,61],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/p4btio-2O","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":72,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/ioc-culture-and-olympic-education-forum-linking-sports-with-culture\/","url_meta":{"origin":174,"position":0},"title":"IOC Culture and Olympic Education Forum : Linking sports with culture and education in the framework of the Cultural Olympiad","date":"February 13, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Constantinos Cartalis As far back as Geometric times, athletic exercise, music and dance constituted the three basic elements in the education of the young Athenians. The education of the young people of Athens had one central goal: to train them to grasp a sense of rhythm and control\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports History"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":32,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/international-youth-sport-tour-benefits\/","url_meta":{"origin":174,"position":1},"title":"International Youth Sport Tour Benefits","date":"February 11, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Joe Manjone, Ed.D. International youth sport tours are travel programs that provide youth teams with the opportunity to travel to and compete against sport teams from other countries. In addition to competing, the team members and their family and\/or friends are able to tour the countries, cities and\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports Facilities"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":75,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/ioc-culture-and-olympic-education-forum-introduction\/","url_meta":{"origin":174,"position":2},"title":"IOC Culture and Olympic Education Forum : Introduction","date":"February 13, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Juan Antonia Samaranch Since its origins, the Olympic Movement has always wished to associate the movements of sport with the thought processes linked to cultural activity, be it sculpture, paintings, literature, music or architecture. At the start of the third millennium, this desire clearly remains as relevant as\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports History"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":211,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/race-gender-and-sport-in-post-apartheid-south-africa\/","url_meta":{"origin":174,"position":3},"title":"Race, Gender and Sport in Post-Apartheid South Africa","date":"September 8, 2005","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Robert Chappell Abstract This paper focuses on the issues of race and gender in sport in South Africa since Nelson Mandela became president of the government of national unity on 10 May 1994. It examines the legacy of apartheid on sport in South Africa when white male supremacy\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":70,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/ioc-culture-and-olympic-education-forum-the-ideal-policy\/","url_meta":{"origin":174,"position":4},"title":"IOC Culture and Olympic Education Forum : The ideal policy to link sport with culture and education","date":"February 13, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Mrs. Miriam C. Moyo Of the three components of this topic: sport, culture and education, culture is the most important and the most basic. Distinct cultures are passed on without being expressly taught. Education is the process through which cultures continue to exist. In traditional societies, sport and\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports History"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":62,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/centennial-anniversary-of-the-international-olympic-movement-and-modern-olympic-games\/","url_meta":{"origin":174,"position":5},"title":"Centennial Anniversary of the International Olympic Movement and Modern Olympic Games","date":"February 12, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Oleg A. Milshteyn, Ph.D. This scholarly history of the International Olympics and modern Olympic games will be an outstanding source for scholars interested in the Olympics and all its glory. Oleg A. Milshteyn is particularly qualified as a researcher through his former affiliation in the Moscow Institute of\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]}],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/174"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=174"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/174\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4210,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/174\/revisions\/4210"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=174"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=174"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=174"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}