{"id":146,"date":"2008-02-18T16:57:25","date_gmt":"2008-02-18T22:57:25","guid":{"rendered":""},"modified":"2017-08-07T11:51:43","modified_gmt":"2017-08-07T16:51:43","slug":"gender-differential-in-the-goal-setting","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/gender-differential-in-the-goal-setting\/","title":{"rendered":"Gender Differential in the Goal Setting, Motivation, Perceived Ability, and Confidence Sources of Basketball Players"},"content":{"rendered":"
Submitted by: Dongfang Chie-der, Steve Chen, Chou Hung-yu, and Chi Li-Kang<\/div>\n

]Abstract[<\/p>\n

Gender differences in goal setting, perceived motivational climate, perceived athletic ability, and perceived sources of confidence in athletic ability were evaluated for a male group and female group of high school basketball players\u00a0(N<\/em> = 174). Significant findings\u00a0included higher scores among males for (a)\u00a0perceived ego climate and (b) perfection of skills <\/em>and physical performance <\/em>as sources of confidence. Significant findings from simple correlation analyses included a positive relationship of both sexes’ task orientation, perceived task climate, and perceived ability, to 8 confidence sources. Male players\u2019 ego orientation was positively related to demonstration of ability, physical performance, and social support. Males’ perceived ego climate and females’ ego orientation were both positively related to 7 of the 8 sources of confidence. Females’ ego orientation, males’ perceived ego climate, and the 8 sources were positively related to confidence perceived prior to competition. Stepwise regression analyses showed males’ task orientation and perceived ability to predict confidence prior to competition; for females, perceived ability and perceived task climate were effective predictors. Respondents derived better confidence in a task-oriented environment, so\u00a0the researchers advise coaches to create task-oriented practice environments to enhance confidence of male and female players.<\/p>\n

]Gender Differential in the Goal Setting, Motivation, Perceived Ability, and Confidence Sources of Basketball Players[<\/p>\n

Self-confidence and sport-related\u00a0confidence have been viewed as crucial factors influencing athletic performance. A number of studies show athletes who are strongly confident in terms of sport concentrate better,\u00a0have healthier emotions,\u00a0and demonstrate better\u00a0game strategies, control of tempos, and performance than less\u00a0confident athletes\u00a0(Chi, 1996; Gould, 1981; Mahoney, Gabriel, & Perkin, 1987). The relationship between sport-related confidence and athletic performance should thus be of vital interest to sport psychologists. But sport-related confidence can be an inconsistent and transitory variable. Its instability over time is based largely on where players find their confidence, the confidence source.<\/em> Research may shed light on how\u00a0a particular source influences level of confidence, cognition, emotion, and behavior (Vealey, 1986). A careful examination of confidence\u00a0sources offers to help explain the interaction of social background, organizational culture, and athletes’ individual characteristics.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Competitive sport is an environment for the pursuit of\u00a0excellence in athletic performance (Duda, 1987). Sport psychology researchers have explored how players develop confidence in their athletic performance.\u00a0Out of the social-cognitive perspective, achievement goal theory has gradually become popular as a model for\u00a0testing \u00a0(Ames & Archer, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988; Nicholls, 1984, 1989; Mills, 1997; Huang & Chi, 1994).<\/p>\n

Prior research on achievement goal theory has shown that a task-oriented climate enhances motivation and confidence (Duda, 1992). There is a relationship between goal orientation and sport-related confidence. Athletes’ task orientation\u00a0correlates positively to their sport confidence; athletes tending to emphasize acquisition of skill (in other words, perfection) along with the learning process and competitive process tend to have\u00a0greater sport-related confidence. Shane’s study\u00a0(2000) of 620 male and female high school or college athletes explored the relationship between goal orientation and sport-related confidence. Its findings showed significant gender differences in task orientation, ego orientation, and several confidence-source factors (skill perfection, demonstration of ability, and physiological\/psychological preparation).\u00a0The findings furthermore showed\u00a0differences in the\u00a0perceived sources of sport confidence for high school versus college athletes (both genders).<\/p>\n

Studies like Shane’s might lead us to conclude that athletes\u2019 emotions, levels of cognition, and behaviors affect their sport confidence. There is ample research indicating that task-oriented individuals and individuals operating in task-oriented climates have relatively positive emotions as well as a\u00a0relatively high self-perception and self-perceived ability. Athletes perhaps more than nonathletes self-perceive their abilities, which would make strong impact on their sport confidence (Mills, 1997; Huang & Chi, 1994). Sport confidence research focusing on organizational culture\u00a0(e.g., perceived motivational climate)\u00a0\u00a0and other environmental factors, however, is rare. In Taiwan, even within sport psychology sport confidence <\/em>is little used as a research construct.<\/p>\n

But what are the variables in athletes\u2019 confidence prior to competing? Where does sport confidence felt by male and female basketball players come from? The present\u00a0study sought those sources of sport confidence, working from motivational theories and their constructs. The primary focus was relationships among high school basketball players\u2019 goal orientation, perceived motivational climate, perceived ability, sport confidence sources, and pre-competition sport confidence levels, as well as how those relationships differed with the gender of the players.<\/p>\n

]Method[<\/p>\n

Subjects<\/em><\/p>\n

The study participants were 174 male (n<\/em> = 87)\u00a0and female (n<\/em> = 87)\u00a0basketball players who had played\u00a0in the 2003 HBL [Taiwanese high school basketball league] Division\u00a0I\u00a0tournament. The average age of a player\u00a0was 17.09 years (SD <\/em>= .91).<\/p>\n

Instruments<\/em><\/p>\n

Four research questionnaires were used to measure four phenomena: (a) participants\u2019 goal orientation, (b) the motivational climate they perceived, (c) perceived personal athletic ability, and (d) perceived personal sport-related confidence.\u00a0 First, the Sport Goal Orientation Questionnaire (Duda & Nicholls, 1989; modified by Chi, 1993) contains 13 questions and is\u00a0primarily used to measure individuals’ goal orientation in sport settings. Second, the Perceived Sport Motivation Climate Questionnaire (Seifriz, Duda, & Chi, 1992; modified by Huang & Chi, 1994), which comprises \u00a0two parts and 34 questions, is primarily used to measure, in team-sport\u00a0settings, the\u00a0motivational climate perceived by individual athletes. Third, a modified version of the Perceived Ability Questionnaire (Nicholls et al., 1985) presented 4 questions. Fourth,\u00a0the Sport Confidence Questionnaire, Wu\u00a0and Chi’s modification\u00a0(2000) of the Vealey et al. Sources of Sports Confidence Questionnaire (1998), was employed to assess the participants’ sources of sport confidence. Wu and Chi’s Sport Confidence Questionnaire\u00a0contains 35 questions and uses a 7-point Likert scale. Questions\u00a0address eight proposed sources of confidence, as follows: perfection of skills, 5 questions; demonstration of ability, 6 questions; physiological\/psychological preparation, 4 questions; physical performance, 3 questions;\u00a0social support, 3 questions; vicarious experience,\u00a04 questions; coach’s leadership style,\u00a07 questions; and positive environment, 3 questions. Percentage of variance was 71.03%, and\u00a0Cronbach’s alpha for the question sets ranged from .70 to .96, indicating strong validity and reliability for the instrument.<\/p>\n

Procedures<\/em><\/p>\n

In advance of the survey administration, coaches and trainers strived to develop good relations with the players and to acquaint themselves well with the practice and game schedules. The researchers informed players participating in the study of the anonymous and strictly confidential nature of their survey responses, and that completing the four instruments would take about 30 minutes. Players met together 2 hours prior to their scheduled practice to complete the instruments. Time was taken at the start of the session to allow the researchers to explain questionnaire content to the participating players.<\/p>\n

]Results[<\/p>\n

Gender differences were observed when t <\/em>tests of the data were conducted (Table 1). The differences characterized goal orientation, perceived motivational climate, perceived ability, and sources of sport confidence. Male participants in the study recorded higher scores than female participants did for the sport-related confidence variables perceived ego climate, perfection of skills, and physical performance.<\/p>\n

Table 1<\/p>\n

Players’ Goal Orientation, Perceived Motivational Climate, Perceived Ability, and Sources of Sport Confidence, by Gender<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
Gender<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
Male<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
Female<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
Number<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
\u00a0 87<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
\u00a0\u00a0\u00a087<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 t<\/em><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
Variable<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
\u00a0Mean<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
\u00a0\u00a0 SD<\/em><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
\u00a0Mean<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
\u00a0 SD<\/em><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Task orientation<\/td>\n4.052<\/td>\n0.529<\/td>\n4.123<\/td>\n0.569<\/td>\n-0.84<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Ego orientation<\/td>\n3.580<\/td>\n0.556<\/td>\n3.500<\/td>\n0.567<\/td>\n0.94<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Perceived task climate<\/td>\n3.894<\/td>\n0.437<\/td>\n3.911<\/td>\n0.499<\/td>\n-.24<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Perceived ego climate<\/td>\n3.483<\/td>\n0.479<\/td>\n3.264<\/td>\n0.530<\/td>\n2.86*<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Perceived ability<\/td>\n4.452<\/td>\n1.171<\/td>\n4.168<\/td>\n1.025<\/td>\n1.69<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Perfection of skills<\/td>\n5.365<\/td>\n0.971<\/td>\n5.181<\/td>\n1.056<\/td>\n1.19**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Demonstration<\/td>\n5.523<\/td>\n0.971<\/td>\n5.181<\/td>\n1.056<\/td>\n1.24**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Physiological\/psychological preparation<\/td>\n5.508<\/td>\n1.016<\/td>\n5.416<\/td>\n1.046<\/td>\n0.55<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Physical performance<\/td>\n4.869<\/td>\n0.897<\/td>\n4.521<\/td>\n1.204<\/td>\n2.16*<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Social support<\/td>\n5.272<\/td>\n0.940<\/td>\n5.157<\/td>\n1.199<\/td>\n0.70<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Leadership styles<\/td>\n5.492<\/td>\n0.924<\/td>\n5.527<\/td>\n1.145<\/td>\n-0.21<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Vicarious experience<\/td>\n5.486<\/td>\n0.932<\/td>\n5.416<\/td>\n1.088<\/td>\n0.33<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Positive environment<\/td>\n5.134<\/td>\n1.029<\/td>\n5.038<\/td>\n1.185<\/td>\n0.59<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
<\/td>\n*p <\/em>< 0.05<\/td>\n**p<\/em> < 0.01<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

When simple correlation analyses were performed, positive relationships were observed for the eight sources-of-sport-confidence variables and the task orientations, perceived task climates, and perceived abilities of players of either gender (Table 2, Table 3). (Again, the eight variables are perfection of skills, demonstration of ability, physical performance, physiological\/psychological preparation, social support, vicarious experience, coach’s leadership style, and positive environment.) Among the male respondents, ego orientation was positively related to demonstration of ability, physical performance, and social support, while perceived ego climate was positively related to demonstration of ability, physical performance, physiological\/psychological preparation, social support, vicarious experience, coach’s leadership style, and positive environment.<\/p>\n

Among\u00a0female respondents, ego orientation was positively related to demonstration of ability, physical performance, physiological\/psychological preparation, social support, vicarious experience, coach’s leadership style, and positive environment, while ego climate was positively related to both vicarious experience and positive environment.<\/p>\n

Table 2<\/p>\n

Simple Correlations Between Variables–Male Respondents (n<\/em> = 87)<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
Variable<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
Task
\norientation<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
Ego
\norientation<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
Perceived
\ntask climate<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
Perceived
\nego climate<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
Perceived
\nability<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Perfection of skills<\/td>\n.596**<\/td>\n.179<\/td>\n.568**<\/td>\n.203<\/td>\n.265*<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Demonstration of ability<\/td>\n.395**<\/td>\n.270*<\/td>\n.398**<\/td>\n.358**<\/td>\n.285<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Physiological\/psychological
\npreparation<\/td>\n		.430**<\/td>\n.093<\/td>\n.478**<\/td>\n.260*<\/td>\n.272**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Physical performance<\/td>\n.320**<\/td>\n.212*<\/td>\n.284**<\/td>\n.288**<\/td>\n.373**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Social support<\/td>\n.518**<\/td>\n.213*<\/td>\n.524**<\/td>\n.303**<\/td>\n.390**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Coach’s leadership style<\/td>\n.517**<\/td>\n.192<\/td>\n.568**<\/td>\n.284**<\/td>\n.401**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Vicarious experience<\/td>\n.412**<\/td>\n.188<\/td>\n.541**<\/td>\n.286**<\/td>\n.302**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Positive environment<\/td>\n.302**<\/td>\n.144<\/td>\n.410**<\/td>\n.365**<\/td>\n.237**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\n

*p<\/em> < 0.05 \u00a0**p<\/em> < 0.01 (two-tailed)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/blockquote>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Table 3<\/p>\n

Simple Correlations Between Variables–Female Respondents (n<\/em> = 87)<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
Variable<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
Task
\norientation<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
Ego
\norientation<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
Perceived
\ntask climate<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
Perceived
\nego climate<\/div>\n<\/td>\n
\n
Perceived
\nability<\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Perfection of skills<\/td>\n.639**<\/td>\n.325**<\/td>\n.664**<\/td>\n.068<\/td>\n.415**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Demonstration of ability<\/td>\n.570**<\/td>\n.552**<\/td>\n.541**<\/td>\n.350**<\/td>\n.263**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Physiological\/psychological
\npreparation<\/td>\n		.683**<\/td>\n.340**<\/td>\n.688**<\/td>\n.155<\/td>\n.365**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Physical performance<\/td>\n.465**<\/td>\n.397**<\/td>\n.429**<\/td>\n.091<\/td>\n.349**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Social support<\/td>\n.637**<\/td>\n.457**<\/td>\n.648**<\/td>\n.128<\/td>\n.426**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Coach’s leadership style<\/td>\n.659**<\/td>\n.479**<\/td>\n.647**<\/td>\n.203<\/td>\n.401**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Vicarious experience<\/td>\n.595**<\/td>\n.250*<\/td>\n.684**<\/td>\n.058<\/td>\n.536**<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Positive environment<\/td>\n.511**<\/td>\n.309**<\/td>\n.494**<\/td>\n.227*<\/td>\n.500<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\n

*p<\/em> < 0.05\u00a0 \u00a0**p<\/em> < 0.01 (two-tailed)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/blockquote>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

For the male respondents, perceived task climate effectively predicted demonstration of ability, physical performance, social support, vicarious experience, coach’s leadership style, and positive environment. In addition, their task orientation effectively predicted perfection of skills and physiological\/psychological preparation. For the female respondents, perceived task climate was an effective predictor of perfection of skills, physical performance, social support, vicarious experience, and positive environment. In addition, their task orientation was an effective predictor of demonstration of ability, physiological\/psychological preparation, coach’s leadership style, and positive environment.<\/p>\n

For\u00a0males,\u00a0total equality of variance was 22.6%, and the variance for each variable was 17.6% and 5.0%. For females, perceived ability and perceived task climate were effective predictors of confidence perceived prior to competition; the total equality of variance was 43.9%, and the variance for each variable was 39.6% and 4.3%.<\/p>\n

]Conclusions[<\/p>\n

The\u00a0study results\u00a0include significant gender differences in perceived ego climate and three source-of-sport-confidence variables: perfection of skills, demonstration, and physical performance. Additionally, for both genders, sources of confidence were closely related to a player’s task orientation, perceived task climate, and perceived ability. During stepwise regression analyses, both genders\u2019 sources of sport confidence were shown to be effectively predicted by a player’s task orientation, motivation task climate, and self-perceived ability. Such findings are in line with results of several previous studies (Shane, 2000; Vealey, 1998; Wu & Chi, 2000). The findings indicated further that players who were more task oriented, or preferred task-oriented climates, valued the participative process (comprising effort, perfection, and learning) over the win-lose outcome. This emphasis would have a positive effect on both sport-related confidence and the sources of that confidence. For this reason, the researchers suggest first\u00a0that coaches work harder at creating task-oriented practice environments or climates, and second that they\u00a0strive to understand the sources of their players’ sport-related confidence, in order to enhance the athletes\u2019 confidence.<\/p>\n

Future studies in the area of athletes’ sport-related confidence might investigate sequential effects of different types of motivational climates on sources of sport confidence (effort and performance) as well as on cognitive anxiety, state anxiety, and satisfaction.<\/p>\n

]References[<\/p>\n

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Chi, L. K. (1996). Stress management of athletes. National Physical Education Quarterly, 25<\/em>(4), 51\u201357.<\/p>\n

Chou, W. H. (1995). The establishment of sport confidence based on self-efficacy. National Physical Education Quarterly, 25<\/em>(4), 62\u201369.<\/p>\n

Corbin, C. B., Laurie, D. R., Gruger, C., & Simley, B. (1984). Vicarious success experience as a factor influencing self-confidence, attitudes, and physical activity of adult women. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 4, <\/em>17\u201323.<\/p>\n

Duda,\u00a0J. L.\u00a0(1992). Motivation in sport settings: A goal perspective approach. In G. C. Roberts (Ed.), Motivation in\u00a0sport and exercise<\/em> (pp. 57\u201391). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.<\/p>\n

Duda, J. L., Chi, L., & Newton, M. (1990). Psychometric characteristics of the TEOSQ. <\/em>Paper presented at the meeting of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Houston, TX.<\/p>\n

Duda, J. L., Fox, K., Biddle, S. J. H., & Armstrong, N. (1992). Children\u2019s achievement goals and beliefs about success in sport. British Journal of Education Psychology, 26, <\/em>40\u201363.<\/p>\n

Feltz, D. L.\u00a0(1988). Self-confidence and sports performance. In K. B. Pandolf (Ed.), Exercise and sport sciences reviews<\/em> (pp.423\u2013457). New York: MacMillan.<\/p>\n

Huang, C. R., &\u00a0Kuo, H. Y. (1999). The sources of athletes\u2019 sport confidence. Chinese Physical Education<\/em>, 13<\/em>(3), 60\u201366.<\/p>\n

Kao, S. F. (1993). A discussion of sport confidence based on the viewpoint of self-efficacy. Chinese Physical Education<\/em>, 7<\/em>(1), 107\u2013110.<\/p>\n

Lirgg, C. C. (1991). Gender differences in self-confidence in physical activity: A meta-analysis of recent studies. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 13<\/em>, 294\u2013310.<\/p>\n

Lu, P. C. (1991). Sport confidence and performance. Chinese Physical Education, 4<\/em>(4), 21\u201325.<\/p>\n

McCormick, S. S. (2000). The relationship of sources of sport-confidence and goal orientation. <\/em>Unpublished master\u2019s thesis, Springfield College.<\/p>\n

Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91<\/em>, 328\u2013346.<\/p>\n

Seifriz, J., Duda, J. L., & Chi, L. (1992). The relationship of perceived motivational climate to intrinsic motivation and beliefs about success in basketball. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14<\/em>, 375\u2013391.<\/p>\n

Vealey, R. S. (1986). Conceptualization of sport-confidence and competitive orientation: Preliminary investigation and instrument development. Journal of Sport\u00a0and Exercise Psychology, 8,<\/em> 221\u2013346.<\/p>\n

Vealey, R. S. (1988). Sport-confidence and competitive orientation: An addendum on scoring procedures and gender differences. Journal of Sport\u00a0and Exercise Psychology, 10,<\/em> 471\u2013478.<\/p>\n

Vealey, R. S., Hayashi, S. W., Garner-Holman, M., & Giacobbi, P. (1998). Sources of sport-confidence: Conceptualization and instrument development. Journal of Sport\u00a0and Exercise Psychology, 20, <\/em>50\u201380.<\/p>\n

Wu, S. C. (2000). A research in relationships of athletes\u2019 goal orientation, perceived motivational climates and sport confidence. <\/em>Unpublished master’s thesis, National College of Sport and Physical Education, Taoyuan, Taiwan, Republic of China.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Submitted by: Dongfang Chie-der, Steve Chen, Chou Hung-yu and Chi Li-Kang<\/div>\n

Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n

\n Self-confidence and sport confidence (SC) have been viewed
\n as some of the most important factors that influence the sport
\n performance. Many studies had shown that athletes with high
\n sport confidence would possess better concentration, game
\n strategies, healthy emotions, control of tempos, and performance
\n (Chi, 1996; Gould, 1981; Mahoney, Gabriel & Perkin, 1987).
\n Therefore, the relationship between sport confidence and performance
\n should be a critical topic for sport psychologists to investigate.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_is_tweetstorm":false,"jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_options":[]},"categories":[290,291,296,294],"tags":[54,57,8,23,47,53,55,56],"jetpack_publicize_connections":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/p4btio-2m","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":148,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/student-athletes-perceptions-about-abuse-by-ncaa-division-ii-tennis-coaches\/","url_meta":{"origin":146,"position":0},"title":"Student-Athletes’ Perceptions About Abuse by NCAA Division II Tennis Coaches","date":"February 21, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Vicky-Lynn Martin, D.S.M. 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Nor can it be considered only big business, making large\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":139,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/the-individual-offensive-strategies-of-taiwanese-collegiate-students-in-basketball\/","url_meta":{"origin":146,"position":3},"title":"The Individual Offensive Strategies of Taiwanese Collegiate Students in Basketball","date":"February 18, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Chia-Ming Chang, Cheng-feng Chiu And Steve Chen Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the preferential individual offensive strategies of male Taiwanese collegiate students. A self-designed questionnaire was utilized to evaluate students' perception on offensive strategies. Subjects were asked to select top-5 preferential strategies from nine\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Sports Coaching"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":115,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/effects-music-has-on-lap-pace-heart-rate-and-perceived-exertion-rate-during-a-20-minute-self-paced-run\/","url_meta":{"origin":146,"position":4},"title":"Effects Music Has on Lap Pace, Heart Rate and Perceived Exertion Rate During a 20-Minute Self-Paced Run","date":"February 14, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: Brian C. Matesic and Fred Cromartie, Ed. D. ABSTRACT The general problem of this study was to determine the effect, if any, music may have on heart rate, lap pace, and perceived exertion rate (RPE) between trained and untrained subjects during a 20-minute self-paced run.","rel":"","context":"In "Sports Coaching"","img":{"alt_text":"Music While Racing - Figure 1","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2008\/02\/MusicWhileRacing-Figure1.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200},"classes":[]},{"id":272,"url":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/article\/non-economic-societal-impacts-of-intercollegiate-athletics\/","url_meta":{"origin":146,"position":5},"title":"Non-Economic Societal Impacts of Intercollegiate Athletics","date":"March 14, 2008","format":false,"excerpt":"Submitted by: David Larimore, Ph.D & George Chitiyo, Ph.D Abstract: Intercollegiate athletics impact society in numerous positive ways. A number of studies have been done seeking to establish the effects of these sports programs on athletes, their institutions, and society at large. This paper is a synthesis of the literature\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Contemporary Sports Issues"","img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]}],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/146"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=146"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/146\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1146,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/146\/revisions\/1146"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=146"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=146"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/thesportjournal.org\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=146"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}